Date: 2020-08-21 16:18:02+00:00
Keywords: BS: Christianity: The Bible; Old and New Testament
Description: Old Testament Bible Literary Genres

The Books of the Old Testament

Norlan De Groot

Copyright © 2020 Norlan De Groot

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are taken from the English Standard Version, 2001, 2007.

ISBN: 9781099170317

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Contents

Preface

1 The Pentateuch

2 The Historical Books

3 Poetry and Wisdom Literature

4 The Books of Prophecy

Works Consulted

Preface

The books of the Old Testament were written during a period that lasted more than 1,000 years. They record the history of God’s people in Old Testament Israel, but they also contain poetry, songs, laments, praises, prophecy, apocalyptic literature, and much more. This book gives a brief overview of the literature found in the Old Testament and summarizes the content of each of the books. It also makes some general comments about how to apply these books in today’s world.

1

The Pentateuch

The Bible reveals much about God, humanity, and the world. It reveals God’s redemptive plan for the world, and it reveals the hope of all Christians as we look forward to the final consummation to come. But God did not simply give us a laundry list of items he would like us to know. Instead, he made his revelation available through a series of literary works: the 66 books that make up the Old and New Testaments. These books were written by different authors in a variety of contexts. They were written using diverse genres and written to assorted audiences. The result is that instead of receiving a flat, one-dimensional list of items to know, we have received a multi-dimensional revelation that affects the heart as well as the mind. We will examine each of the books that make up the Old Testament discovering as we go, the rich, literary treasure that God has provided us.

Background

The Pentateuch includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. It will be helpful to our understanding of these books to study the various literary genres found within them. We will also be helped in our understanding by examining the author and date of writing as well as the original audience and setting. Later in this chapter, we will focus on the content of these books and their application to our lives.

Genres

A genre is simply an identifiable kind or type of literary work. Any literary works that share at least one trait in common can conceivably be identified as a genre. Some genres share similar content. Others share a similar function or language. Genres can also share a similar style, mood, or even a common use of words and phrases. For example, you could distinguish a genre of poetry from a prose genre, but you could also distinguish the genre of Christian poetry from Ancient Greek poetry.

It is important to remember that it is possible to group pieces of literature in many different ways. Because of this, genres can be very fluid. Many kinds of literature can be classified as genres, and many individual pieces of literature can be identified with multiple genres. The only qualification is that they must bear one or more traits in common with other literature. As fluid as genres are, they are still helpful to the student of the Bible. Knowing the genre involved makes a difference in how we study a book. We approach the various genres with different expectations. For example, we read historical narrative differently than we read poetry.

For our purposes, we will discuss the genres of historical narrative, legal code, divine covenant, genealogy, and poetry as they appear in the Pentateuch. These are not the only genres that appear in the first five books of the Old Testament, but they are the main ones. In addition, some of these genres are used to a greater extent in other sections of the Old Testament, so we will discuss them in more depth in later chapters. Let’s begin with the genre of historical narrative.

Historical Narrative

Historical narrative is the most common genre found in the Bible. It is the genre of the Bible stories. It tells us what happened in the history of God’s people. It tells us who the main characters were, when and where things happened, and as we shall see later in this section, it even explains why the events occurred. As a genre, it is like other narrative forms. It uses a narrator to communicate its message. The narrator tells the story from a specific point of view, often as a first-person or third-person narrator. In the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and tells the story from his or her perspective. In the third-person point of view, the narrator refers to all characters using pronouns in the third person. Much of Ezra and Nehemiah are written in the first person, but most historical narrative in the Bible is written in the third person.

Hebrew historical narrative often follows a chiastic structure, which also appears in other ancient literature as well as Hebrew poetry. A chiastic structure is a thematic structure that runs through the story. A story that follows a chiastic structure will state an idea (A) at the beginning of a story and restate the same idea (A1) at the end of the story. Another idea (B) will be presented as the second idea of a story and will be repeated (B1) as the second to the last element of a story. The story will then be organized something like this:

A

B

C

D

C1

B1

A1

Historical narrative also follows a distinct plot structure. Stories begin by placing the reader in a specific setting and introducing the reader to the beginning action. At some point, conflict enters the story and introduces increasingly intense complications. These complications are eventually resolved, and the action ends with a fitting conclusion. In this sense, historical narrative is like stories of fiction. However, while historical narrative shares literary devices in common with modern fiction, the events that the Bible records through historical narrative are not fictional accounts but accounts of events that actually happened. In the New Testament, Paul laid heavy emphasis on this in discussing the account of the resurrection. He said, “And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith” (1 Cor. 15:14). For Paul, as for all the biblical writers, taking the events of the Bible as anything other than actual history would be tantamount to denying the faith.

When we read historical narrative in the Bible, we must understand it as actual history. But this actual history is more than a mere collection of facts. The Bible’s historical narrative was written for various purposes. It helps us understand history on multiple levels. It does so because the historical narrative in the Bible is a special kind of history. It is, as Longman states, more like painting than videotaping (Genesis 62). It presents us with actual history, but it presents it in a way that emphasizes the author’s theological bent. It gives us history in perspective.

This means that biblical history is theological history. The human authors chose to include some events and leave out others. They also attempted to answer why certain events occurred. In doing so, they betrayed a specific theological perspective. It is covenant history. It shows how God interacts with his people in time and space, in and through historical events. In doing so, it teaches us about God and our relationship with him. It is redemptive history, pointing us to Jesus Christ, who is the center of all history. And it is practical history. It helps us to learn the lessons of history so that we can live faithfully in the present and have hope for the future. We see the God who acts in history and know that this is the same God who acts in the present and the future. It connects us with the covenant people of the past, illustrating through their lives principles of godly living. It helps us understand God and others. Leland Ryken put it this way, “John Calvin was right when he said that true knowledge consists of two things—knowledge of God and knowledge of ourselves (that is, people). The stories of the Bible give us those two things” (Biblical Narrative 13)

Legal Code

Historical narrative performs a vital function within the books of the Old Testament. But other genres also play a role in communicating God’s revelation. Legal code is another important genre for the Pentateuch. As its name implies, legal code represents the system of laws that were written down and included in the canon of Scripture. As King, God established his rule over his people, Israel. He gave the law to his people to regulate how they would function as a nation. This law was written down and organized, or codified, by Moses.

The legal code regulated many different aspects of Israelite life. Some laws regulated how people were to relate to their neighbors. Other laws regulated how sacrifices were to be offered. Still others regulated the building of the tabernacle and its furnishings. There were laws that regulated personal holiness, spelling out what was clean and unclean. Throughout these laws, we see how God directed the Israelites in proper living before their King. And we see the consequences he defined if they did not.

Let’s examine some of these laws in detail. As we sort through these laws, two distinct types emerge: general regulations and case law.[1] In the Old Testament, general regulations were intended to show God’s people the path of obedience by showing them, under normal circumstances, what they should embrace and what they should avoid. For example, Leviticus 19:2b says, “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.” Another example comes from Exodus 22:28: “You shall not revile God, nor curse the ruler of your people.” These laws were given to the Israelites as general rules for how to live their lives. The Israelites were to embrace holiness; they were to avoid blasphemy.

It should always be remembered that while these general regulations did regulate the conduct of God’s kingdom citizens, they were not intended to be burdens on God’s people. Rather, God gave the people of Israel these laws as a way of blessing them. The laws showed them how they could find life and blessing in God’s kingdom by showing them how to be faithful to the King, who was the source of those blessings. A prime example of blessing in the law comes from the Ten Commandments. Exodus 20:12 says, “Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you.” Long life in the Land of Promise was a blessing that came through obedience to the law.

In addition to providing blessings for his people, God used the general regulations to restrain evil. Murderers, thieves, adulterers, and others were prevented from infecting the community with their sin, resulting in a community at peace with God and at peace with themselves. And the law even went further. Not only did it restrain evil, but it commanded God’s people to show justice and mercy. Exodus 23:1-9 gives us many good examples of the command to show mercy. Some of the commands were:

- Do not spread false reports

- Do not show favoritism to a poor man in his lawsuit

- If you see a donkey of someone who hates you fallen down under its load, do not leave it there; be sure you help him with it.

- Do not accept a bribe

- Do not oppress an alien; you yourselves know how it feels to be aliens because you were aliens in Egypt.

The Israelites’ mercy reflected the mercy God had shown them. Ultimately, God showed his mercy by sending his Son, Jesus Christ. This, too, was demonstrated in the law. The laws regarding the tabernacle were a particularly poignant reminder of God’s mercy to his people. Through these laws, God signified his presence among his people while continuing to guard his holiness. Even in the most holy place in the tabernacle, the law provided for the high priest to have access to it once a year. When the high priest did enter the most holy place, he did so to sprinkle the blood of the atonement lamb on the mercy seat, which covered the ark of the covenant. Access to the presence of God was possible when it was done by way of the mercy seat sprinkled with the blood of the atonement, prefiguring the atoning blood of the Lamb, Jesus Christ.

The laws regarding the sacrifices were an equally poignant reminder of God’s mercy to his people. The need for sacrifices pointed to the need that God’s people had for holiness, which could only be established through the redemption of their sins. The blood from the sacrifices pointed to the ultimate source of that redemption, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ on the cross. As J. S. Exell put it,

“The Old Testament is ever celebrating the mercy of God. Some contend that the God of the Old Testament is an inexorable and cruel deity, but the inmost idea of the whole dispensation is that of the Divine mercifulness (Exod. xx. 6). This glorious idea runs through the whole of their worship; the whole ceremonial culminates on the golden mercy-seat. And this idea also runs through the whole of their literature. But in Christ, we have the clear, full declaration of the mercifulness of God” (444).

In addition to general regulations, we also find case law in the legal code genre. Old Testament case law should be considered a working out of the Old Testament general regulations. It helps us understand how to apply general regulations by spelling out exactly how to respond in specific situations, or cases, where the law is broken or kept. One example of case law is found in Exodus 22:1, which says, “If a man steals an ox or a sheep, and kills it or sells it, he shall repay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep.” The general regulation is, “You shall not steal.” The law in Exodus 22:1 gives a specific case of a man stealing an ox or a sheep and prescribes a specific number of animals to be repaid in restitution.

Other examples come from the laws prescribing various sacrifices as an outworking of the general regulation to worship the Lord. For example, Leviticus 2:14 says, “If you offer a grain offering of firstfruits to the Lord, you shall offer for the grain offering of your firstfruits fresh ears, roasted with fire, crushed new grain.” This case law does not provide for any punishment, but rather states the proper way to offer a grain offering of firstfruits.

When discussing case law, it is also important to note that case law in Moses’ day might look very different from case law in our day. Tremper Longman has given good advice here. He stated, “[C]ase laws are applications of the principles of the Ten Commandments to the specific social and redemptive-historical situation of the people of God. Christians live in a different social and redemptive-historical moment” (Exodus 157).

While case law prescribes specific punishments, or specific ways of proper behavior, the emphasis of case law should always be placed on the spirit of the law and not the letter of it. The letter of the law was never binding, but the spirit of the law always was. We can illustrate this with an example from Moses himself. Exodus 31:14 states a case law that anyone who desecrates the Sabbath must be put to death. But later, in Numbers 15:34, we read that a man desecrated the Sabbath day, and yet it was not clear to Moses and the assembly what should be done to him. The fact that Moses had to ask God what to do indicates that he believed the spirit of the law was the actual, binding standard.

We should also note that many of the penalties prescribed in case law were maximum sentences, not mandatory ones. One exception was the penalty for murder, which was death. Numbers 35:32 tells us that in the case of murder, the death sentence had to be carried out. But for many other laws, the penalty could be reduced depending on the circumstance. Leviticus 6:1-7 provides for a reduction in the penalty for theft if the thief, feeling guilty, confesses his sin.

The legal code in the Old Testament was intended to give us a rich testimony of God’s grace in the life of his people. As Nehemiah pointed out in Nehemiah 9, if the people of Israel had obeyed the law, they would have found life through it, because the spirit of the law breathed life into God’s people. And what was that spirit? It was best summarized in Micah 6:8, “He has told you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God?”

Divine Covenant

A third genre, divine covenant, is closely associated with the genre of legal code. A divine covenant specified the kind of relationship that should exist between God and his people. Divine covenants were patterned after other, common treaties in the ancient middle east called suzerain-vassal treaties. These suzerain-vassal treaties served as international agreements between great emperors, or suzerains, on the one hand, and lesser kings and nations on the other. Emperors administered their empires through these treaties.

All suzerain-vassal treaties included at least three elements. The great emperor declared his royal benevolence to the vassal kings and nations. The emperors required loyal service from their vassals because they had shown kindness. And they set forth many positive and negative consequences for the loyalty and disloyalty of their vassals. When God established divine covenants with Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, and Christ, he included the same three elements that were present in suzerain-vassal treaties. In this way, God confirmed that it was through divine covenants that he, as the great king of Israel, chose to administer his kingdom.

An important point to remember when considering the divine covenants between God and his people is that a relationship based on God’s benevolence always comes first. Only after establishing a benevolent relationship does God set forth his requirements in the form of laws. Obedience to the law never establishes our relationship with God. Rather, our relationship with God produces obedience. Even in the Old Testament, the law was given in the context of grace.

Genealogy

So far, we have discussed the genres of historical narrative, legal code, and divine covenants. Two additional genres, genealogy and poetry appear in the Pentateuch but are more prominent in later books. We will briefly touch on them now but will save a lengthier description of them for later chapters. We turn first to genealogies.

Genealogies were essentially lists of ancestors. Here’s an example from Genesis 5:6-8: “When Seth had lived 105 years, he became the father of Enosh. Seth lived after he fathered Enosh 807 years and had other sons and daughters. All the days of Seth were 912 years, and he died.”

If you have ever been tempted to skip a section in your Bible reading, it has probably been when you have come to a genealogy. Our modern eyes do not always consider genealogies to be important. We do not understand why we need to know that Seth was 105 years old when he became the father of Enosh. We consider them nothing more than boring lists of names. But the people of the Old Testament would have looked at these genealogies quite differently. Genealogies provided continuity for God’s people. They served to connect the present generation of Israelites with all the generations that went before. They provide that same continuity today (See Dockery 270).

Genealogies also provide strong support for the claim that all the people of the Bible, from Adam on down, were actual, living people They lived. They breathed. They walked this earth. Genealogies help us to provide accurate dates for many of the events of the Old Testament. Genealogies show us that the God of Israel is a God who keeps his covenant. He is in this relationship for the long haul. So, genealogies played an important role in the Old Testament, and they continue to play an important role today. Yes, they are lists., but they are lists with a purpose.

Poetry

The Pentateuch contains beautiful examples of Hebrew poetry, such as the Song of Moses in Exodus 15; Balaam’s oracles in Numbers 23–24; and the final Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32–33. Poetry is not prominent in the Pentateuch, but it is present. We will save a fuller discussion of Hebrew poetry for our chapter on Poetry and Wisdom Literature, but for now we should at least mention three elements to consider when we encounter poetry in the Pentateuch. Hebrew poetry is concise. It uses minimal words for maximum effect. Because it is so concise, it demands that we read it at a slower pace. Also, Hebrew poetry uses a literary device called parallelism, which repeats themes and phrases in parallel lines. But keep in mind that it is not simply repetition. Hebrew parallelism shows us many facets of a concept and often shows progression and intensification of the original thought. Finally, Hebrew poetry makes abundant use of imagery, helping us to understand abstract theological concepts through concrete images. These three basic characteristics of Hebrew poetry will help us make better sense of the poetry we encounter in the Pentateuch.

Author

Tradition tells us that Moses, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, wrote the Pentateuch in his lifetime. This tradition is corroborated by the Bible. In the Old Testament, we can go to the Pentateuch, itself, to find this corroboration. Throughout the Pentateuch, we see indications that the author had first-hand experience of the event described. This would strongly indicate Mosaic authorship. And we can go even further. Exodus 24, Numbers 33, and Deuteronomy 31 specifically identify Moses as the author of significant portions of the Pentateuch. In addition, books that were written after the exile, like Second Chronicles and Nehemiah, refer to the Pentateuch as “The Books of Moses” or “the Books of the Law of Moses.” The New Testament as well refers to Moses as the author in the gospels, Acts, and numerous epistles. Jesus, himself, referred to Moses’ authorship when he said in John 5:46, “For if you believed Moses, you would believe me; for he wrote of me.”

But we should be clear as to what Mosaic authorship involved. When we say Moses was the author, we are saying that he composed the Pentateuch in a form that was very close to what we have today. The books come from him and are written with his authority. But this does not preclude Moses’ use of extrabiblical sources, which was a common practice in Moses’ day. In fact, Moses quotes one of these sources, the Book of the Wars of the Lord, in Numbers 21:14.[2]

It is also likely that Moses used secretaries in writing these books. This, too, was a common practice in Moses’ day. It does not detract from Moses’ authorship since any work of the secretaries would have been done under the approval and authority of Moses himself. We can see possible evidence of Joshua serving in this way. In Exodus 17:14 we read, “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Write this as a memorial in a book and recite it in the ears of Joshua…’”

We should also note that later authors, who were equally inspired, could have kept the text of the Pentateuch current by updating things like names of cities and places. Someone other than Moses almost certainly added Moses’ obituary in Deuteronomy 34:1-12. We do not know with certainty, but it would make sense that a man like Joshua would have added Moses’ obituary. These updates and additions do not detract from our understanding of Mosaic authorship or from the inspiration of these books.

While it may seem clear that Moses was the fundamental source and authority for the composition of the Pentateuch, some Bible scholars take issue with this. Within the past two hundred years, they have advanced their own hypothesis, called the documentary hypothesis, about the authorship of the Pentateuch, in opposition to the Bible’s own witness. Scholars who hold this view believe that the Pentateuch was written, or at least edited or redacted, by several authors sometime after the exile.

More recently, these documentary views have been questioned. Even the scholars who hold these views have modified them to acknowledge two specific problems with the documentary hypothesis: First, recent archaeological evidence points to material in the Pentateuch that existed before the exile. And second, it is increasingly evident that the books of the Pentateuch have a unified structure that would indicate a single author, not a redaction of many authors.

In light of the problems with the documentary hypothesis and the obvious witness from Scripture, it seems best to assume Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, understanding that Moses could have used other sources and secretaries and that later authors could have updated the text. In any case, regardless of what Moses wrote, the sources he may have used, and the parts that may have been added after Moses, it is the final form of the text that God has given us as his inspired Word. This could not have happened without the work of the Holy Spirit

The Holy Spirit inspired Moses to write the Pentateuch, but he did not simply dictate the words to Moses. Neither did he simply inspire Moses as an artist might be inspired to paint a landscape on a particularly beautiful day. Rather, the Holy Spirit worked in and through Moses to write these books through a process called organic inspiration. Peter referred to this process when he said in 2 Peter 1:20-21:

“Knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”

Organic inspiration involves men speaking in their own language, with their own vocabulary and diction. But when they spoke, it was because the Holy Spirit had prompted them to speak. The Holy Spirit illumined their minds and guided their thoughts down to the very choice of their words. And the Holy Spirit did this without impinging upon their own style and patterns of communicating.

Organic inspiration means that the Bible was not simply handed to us in written form from heaven, nor was it simply produced from the minds of sinful men. Rather, the Bible, as it was organically inspired, was written by men, but most certainly bears the imprint of the Holy Spirit himself.

Date

We have already determined that Moses authored the Pentateuch, so it obviously had to have been written during his lifetime. We can further narrow down the time frame, by focusing on the time of the Exodus as the time in which the substance of all five books of the Pentateuch likely took shape.

We can determine the time of the Exodus by cross-referencing it with other events of the Bible. Jephthah, one of the Judges, ruled as a Judge from roughly 1152 B.C. to 1146 B.C. In Judges 11:26, he made a reference to the Israelite occupation of several Transjordan cities, which took place during the Exodus prior to the Israelites’ entrance into Canaan. He noted that this event happened roughly 300 years prior to his time. This would place the Exodus as having begun in approximately 1446 B.C. This is consistent with a reference in 1 Kings 6:1 that dates the Exodus event as having occurred 480 years before the reign of Solomon. A date for the Exodus of 1446 B.C. is also consistent with a reference in Exodus 12:40-41, which specified that the Israelites remained in Egypt 430 years before God brought them out of Egypt. (See Dockery 112)

With these dates in mind, we can place the Exodus as having occurred between 1446 and 1406 B.C. Moses likely began writing Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus early in this period, putting them in their final form at the end of the Exodus, on the plains of Moab, where he also wrote Numbers and Deuteronomy.

Original Audience

Knowing that Moses was the author allows us to make some observations regarding the audience to whom Moses was writing and the historical setting in which he was writing. While the Pentateuch describes the history of God’s people from creation to the death of Moses, it was written for the people of Israel in Moses’ day. But these people constituted two distinct groups: 1) the first generation of Israelites that came out of Egypt with Moses, and 2) the second generation of Israelites, the children of the first generation who traveled with Moses to the edge of the Promised Land and then entered the land under the leadership of Joshua.

Let’s look first at the first generation. After God redeemed his people from slavery in Egypt, he formed them into a nation by entering into a covenant with them. The people of Israel needed to know their history from creation on, but they also needed to know their God and what he expected of them as a nation and as a people set apart by God.

Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus were written with this purpose in mind. It was important for both the first and second generations to understand these issues. It is not known whether the first three books of the Pentateuch were written for the first or second generation, but both generations needed to somehow understand the content of these books. And it is likely that at least large portions of these three books were written during the first generation’s lifetime.

Despite the many ways God established his covenant with the first generation of Israelites and the many ways he blessed them in their travel to Canaan when they arrived at the edge of the Promised Land, they faltered. Numbers 13 and 14 relate the story of Moses sending spies into the land and ten of the twelve spies coming back with a frightening report. The people responded by rebelling against Moses and ultimately rebelling against the Lord their God. God was ready to destroy this first generation, but Moses pleaded with the Lord, and the Lord forgave them. But the consequences of their rebellion remained. None of them from twenty years old and upward, with the exceptions of Joshua and Caleb, would be allowed to enter the Promised Land. That would be left for the generation that followed.

The second generation needed to learn the same lessons as the first, but they needed more as well. This generation had not experienced God’s deliverance of his people through the Red Sea. They had not experienced God establishing his covenant with them at Sinai. This new generation needed to be told these things. They needed to understand their history—not only of their parents but of all their forefathers.

This new generation also needed to be formed into God’s holy army in preparation for entering the Promised Land. As an army, they were to be faithful in establishing the nation of Israel in the land of promise. As a covenant people, they were to be faithful to their covenant God. The books of Numbers and Deuteronomy were written for this second generation prior to entering the Promised Land.

Content

Now that we understand some of the background of the Pentateuch, we can discuss the content of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy and their application to our lives.

Genesis

Genesis was written to give the people of Israel a sense of God’s design for them by reviewing their history from the creation of the world through the lives of the patriarchs. It was written to encourage them as they shed their identity as slaves and took on a new identity as the people of the covenant, preparing to claim the land of Canaan as their inheritance.

Genesis begins with a prologue, and then it is divided into ten parts marked out by the formula, “This is the account of....” with a person named who will be the focus of the genealogies and stories to follow (Sproul 6). The word for “account” in Hebrew is toledoth, which adds a personal dimension to the word “account.” This is a family history. It is an account of family generations. Let’s take a closer look at the prologue and these toledoth sections.

Prologue: The Creation of Heaven and Earth (Gen. 1:1–2:3)

Genesis begins with a prologue detailing the creation of the heavens and the earth. It is set apart from the rest of the book through a literary device that marks its beginning and ending. In 1:1, the word “created” precedes “the heavens and the earth.” At the end of the prologue, in 2:1-3, this order is reversed. They function as “bookends” that frame the story of the creation of heaven and earth. It is in this prologue, in 1:28-30, that God gave a command called the Cultural Mandate, to humanity to “be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it.”

Admittedly, there are tensions between this creation account and modern science. But these tensions are largely resolved when we recognize that the Genesis account is concerned about who created the world and why. Modern science is concerned about how it was created and when. The Bible does not attempt to answer the questions of modern science. And modern science is unable to answer the questions posed by the Bible. This does not deny the historicity of the creation account or the fact that a real Adam and a real Eve actually walked this earth. But it does mean that the reasons for writing the Genesis account are very different from the reasons a scientist would have for giving a scientific explanation of the creation of the world.

For our purposes, we can state simply that the creation story shows how God established an ideal world that was brought to ruin through the sin of Adam and Eve, and how God established his redemptive plan for the world, which lead directly to his redemption of Israel from Egypt.

The Account of the Heavens and the Earth (Gen. 2:4–4:26)

The first account, or toledoth, describes the universal development of humanity at the creation of the world. It also depicts the original fall of humanity, and how quickly and pervasively sin affected God’s good creation after the Fall. But through this all, it also shows God’s promise, called the First Gospel, or protoevangelium, that one day Jesus Christ would conquer sin when the seed of the woman would crush the head of the serpent.

The Account of Adam (Gen. 5:1–6:8)

This account describes the development of the line of Seth and the escalation of sin before the flood. Chapter 5 is a stark reminder of the presence of sin in the world. All the ancestors listed speak of the many years they lived, but in the end, each one is described with the words, “and he died.” By the time we get to Genesis 6:5, we see with the Lord that “the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every intention of the thoughts of his hears was only evil continually.”

The Account of Noah (Gen. 6:9–9:29)

The sin in Noah’s day had become so pervasive that God was unwilling to contend with that sin any longer. The account describes God’s response in sending the flood. It also shows God exercising his grace to Noah by saving Noah and his family in the ark. And it shows God’s grace to the entire world when God accepted Noah’s sacrifice and made a covenant with him to never again destroy all living creatures as he had done, pointing to the ultimate sacrifice of Jesus Christ, that made this grace possible.

The Account of Shem, Ham, and Japheth (Gen. 10:1–11:9)

Sin remained even after the flood. We see the development of the nations after the flood through the lines of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, but we also see the continuing effects of sin in their lives. In a sense, this account is a re-creation of the world after the flood. And sadly, it also recounts the continued sinfulness of humanity. In chapter 11, the sinfulness had grown so strong in building the tower of Babel that God again stepped in to thwart man’s attempts to make a name for himself and to avoid following God’s command to fill the earth and subdue it. However, instead of destroying the world with a flood, this time, he simply confused the languages so that groups within humanity were forced to separate and go their own way.

The Account of Shem (Gen. 11:10-26)

Shem’s account parallels the account of Adam in chapter 5, but interestingly, this account does not mention that each of these ancestors died. Instead, each entry ends with “and had other sons and daughters.” The emphasis in this account is on the continued development of the line of Seth, which is the seed of the woman, the line of redemption.

The Account of Terah (Gen. 11:27–25:11)

The next several accounts focus on the lives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They show how God used these forefathers of the Israelite nation as instruments of his redemption, and as recipients of his promises, particularly his promises of land and numerous descendants. The account of Terah describes the covenant God made with Abraham and his descendants, which would bless not only Abraham’s biological descendants but would bless people from all nations who can be children of Abraham by faith (Galatians 3:7). As such, it parallels the account of Noah, which described the covenant God made with Noah and his descendants to never again destroy the earth with a flood.

The Account of Ishmael (Gen. 25:12-18)

The next two accounts are those of Ishmael and Isaac. Ishmael was the rejected offspring of Abraham, while Isaac was in the line of the promise. Ishmael’s account shows the development of the line of the Ishmaelites, but it ends with “He settled over against all his kinsmen” (v. 18), fulfilling the prophecy that the angel of Lord spoke to Hagar, Ishmael’s mother, in Genesis 16:12.

The Account of Isaac (Gen. 25:19–35:29)

In contrast to Ishmael, Isaac was the elect offspring, the promised seed of Abraham. The Lord told Abraham in Genesis 21:12, “…through Isaac shall your offspring be named.” As Longman says, “The most important point to make about the Isaac narrative has to do with the continuance of the promise. He is the child of the promise, and through him the promise passes down the generations” (Genesis 136). The account of Isaac begins with the birth of his twin sons Esau and Jacob, one loved by God and the other not (Malachi 1:2-3). It is the story of the two lines, with the line of the seed of the woman being passed from Abraham through Isaac to Jacob. Despite Jacob’s many flaws, the promise was made to him and to his children.

The Account of Esau (Gen. 36:1–37:1)

Like the account of Ishmael, the account of Esau is also an account of rejected offspring. God rejected Esau in favor of Jacob, who would stand prominently as one of the three patriarchs in the history of redemption.

The Account of Jacob (Gen. 37:2–50:26)

While this section may be described as the account of Jacob, its focus is the life of Joseph and Jacob’s other sons, the twelve patriarchs of Israel. The experiences of these twelve patriarchs taught the tribes of Israel loyalty to God and to each other as they served God as instruments of redemption. This entire section is considered the final account of the ten accounts in Genesis. It discusses the patriarchs as separated and disharmonious when Joseph had trouble with his brothers and was sold as a slave to Egypt. It then shows the patriarchs as living together in harmony in the land of Egypt. And finally, it shows the patriarchs as living with the promise of a future in the land of Canaan.

Throughout this history, Joseph stood as an instrument of redemption to his family, saving them from a life of famine, ruling over them and preserving them in the land of Goshen, and making possible a future hope of blessing again in the land of Canaan. In this sense, Joseph stood as a type of Christ, pointing to the ultimate redemption that God’s people have in Jesus.

Exodus

After Genesis, we come to Exodus, the second book of the Pentateuch. Exodus continues the story of Genesis, even though there is a lapse of approximately 400 years from where the history recounted in Genesis leaves off to when the history picks back up in Exodus 1.

Exodus describes the deliverance of God’s people from slavery in Egypt and affirms Moses’ divinely appointed authority to lead. God proved in a mighty way that he was Israel’s savior. But he also showed his presence among his people as their king. He did so by establishing a covenant with his people, using Moses as a mediator. And he did so by making provision for the tabernacle erected by Moses and the worship regulations that accompanied it.

In line with the main themes of Exodus, we can divide the book into three parts: God delivers Israel from bondage, God forms a nation through his law, and God shows his presence in Israel through the tabernacle.

God Delivers Israel from Bondage (Exod. 1–18)

The first 18 chapters of Exodus show the miraculous deliverance that God brought about for his people through his servant Moses. These chapters highlight Moses’ birth and unique upbringing. They highlight God’s appointment of him to deliver Israel from slavery and the resulting struggle with Pharaoh. We see through these stories, more than a simple conflict between Moses and Pharaoh. This was the story of Yahweh, the God of Israel, powerfully demonstrating his superiority over the false gods of Egypt.

At the end of this section, we see Moses leading God’s people out of Egypt and through the wilderness to the Promised Land. The struggles with Pharaoh were over, but new struggles began. Now, the struggles were with the stiff-necked Israelites. Here, too, this is more than a story about Moses contending with the Israelites. This is a story about God contending with his people. When the people struggled against Moses in the wilderness, they were in a very real sense struggling with the God who redeemed them.

God Forms a Nation through His Law (Exod. 19–24)

As the one who delivered his people from bondage, God had the right and the authority to form the people of Israel into a nation. He did this by establishing his covenant law. God, as the Redeemer of Israel, claimed his right to make a covenant with his redeemed people, and he used Moses to press these claims. Just as Moses played a pivotal role in the deliverance of God’s people from Egypt, so now, Moses served as the mediator between God and his people.

In Exodus 19, Moses initiated the covenant by expressing the relationship God had established with his people, and by consecrating the people before the Lord. Moses then went on to codify the covenant in chapters 20 through 23. Central to the covenant were the Ten Commandments found in chapter 20. They formed the foundation for the relationship between God and his people as well as the foundation for relationships between human beings. Chapters 21–23 then spell out more specifically how the Ten Commandments were to be lived in the context of this generation of Israelites.

At the end of this section, in Exodus 24, Moses and the Israelites finalized the covenant by worshiping their covenant God. The people proclaimed, “All the words that the Lord has spoken we will do” (v. 3), and again after offering sacrifices and hearing the Book of the Covenant read, the people responded, “All that the Lord has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient” (v. 7). And God accepted their testimony, allowing Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and 70 elders a partial glimpse of his glory.

God’s Shows His Presence in the Tabernacle (Exod. 25–40)

As the God of the covenant, Yahweh showed his presence among his people through the tabernacle. Moses, the mediator between God and his people, played a pivotal role in the establishment of the regulations concerning the tabernacle. Moses gave precise instructions for building the tabernacle, its furnishings, and even the clothing to be worn by the priests. All these instructions originated from and were authorized by God, himself. When the people violated the worship regulations established by Moses, only Moses’ personal intercession delivered them from the wrath of God.

The design of the tabernacle and its placement within the camp show how God’s people were to approach the presence of a holy God in their midst. The tabernacle was composed of three parts: a courtyard, a Holy Place, and the Most Holy Place. Surrounding the courtyard were the Levite camps, and surrounding them was the rest of the Israelite camp. The area outside the camp was relegated to the Gentiles and those Israelites who were ceremonially unclean.

We see in this arrangement a progression of holiness beginning from the unholy area outside the camp, going through the camps of the Israelites, through the Levite camps, through the courtyard and the Holy Place, where only Levites were allowed, and arriving at the Most Holy Place, where only the high priest was allowed once a year on the Day of Atonement. Inside the Most Holy Place was the ark of the covenant, the most potent symbol of God’s presence. It is described in 1 Chronicles 28:2 as the footstool of God’s throne. Exodus shows us in no uncertain terms, a holy God establishing his presence among a people he has redeemed.

Exodus 39:42-43 gives a fitting conclusion to the work of the people in preparing the tabernacle according to Moses’ instructions. It says, “According to all that the Lord had commanded Moses, so the people of Israel had done all the work. And Moses saw all the work, and behold, they had done it; as the Lord had commanded, so had they done it. Then Moses blessed them.” After Moses blessed the people, the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. God remained with his people throughout their travels, dwelling among them, and directing their steps as they advanced toward the land he had promised them.

Leviticus

Leviticus was written to guide the Israelites in the way of holiness. Just as God remained holy, or set apart, within the Israelite camp, so too the people of Israel were to remain holy, or set apart, from the world around them. Leviticus guided the Israelites in four areas related to their call to holiness: sacrificial laws, the priesthood, laws regarding uncleanness, and case laws regarding holiness.

Sacrificial Laws (Lev. 1–7)

The first seven chapters of Leviticus explain how the people of Israel, as well as the priests, were to participate in a variety of sacrifices in the presence of God at the tabernacle. Sacrifices played an important role in maintaining the covenant relationship between God and his people. The sacrifices were offerings from the people to God and assumed a level of fellowship between God and his people. They also helped heal the relationship between God and his people when it was broken by sin. This was accomplished through a variety of offerings.

The burnt offering was burned completely before the Lord, except for the skin, after the one who was making the offering laid his hand on the head of the offering. The burnt offering was a voluntary offering for the atonement of the one bringing the offering. The grain offering was a mixture of flour, oil, incense, and salt. Part of the flour was burnt with the other ingredients, and the rest was given to the priests for food. The grain offering was voluntary and showed the worshiper’s dedication to his God. The fellowship offering was also known as the peace offering or covenant offering. It was a voluntary offering to show thanksgiving to God and fellowship with him. It was primarily eaten by the worshiper and his family, but part of it was also shared with the priests. The sin offering, also known as the purification offering, was a mandatory offering for those who sinned unintentionally. And the guilt offering was like the sin offering, but the examples Leviticus gives for the guilt offering are restricted to offenses against the things of the Lord.

The Priesthood (Lev. 8–10)

In Leviticus 8–10, Moses described the beginning of the Aaronic priesthood. Moses performed several ceremonies on Aaron and his sons, washing them with water and systematically clothing them with the priestly garments, as well as anointing them with oil and making offerings to make atonement for them. Moses called on Aaron and his sons to complete the ceremonies by performing their duties as priests in making burnt offerings for the people and blessing them. Moses called on Aaron and his sons to carefully observe the worship regulations that he had set forth. And he gave them his promise in Leviticus 9:6, “This is the thing that the Lord has commanded you to do, that the glory of the Lord may appear to you.” Indeed, the glory of the Lord did appear when fire came out from the presence of the Lord and consumed the burnt offering that Aaron had prepared.

Sadly, this section ends by showing the inadequacy of human priests. Two of Aaron’s sons, Nadab and Abihu, did not carefully observe the regulations for offering incense that Moses had laid out. They offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. Fire again came out from the presence of the Lord, but this time it consumed the priests. Nadab and Abihu were immediately struck dead. The Lord gave his reason for such a strong response to Nadab and Abihu when he said in Lev. 10:3b, “Among those who are near me I will be sanctified, and before all the people I will be glorified.” Above all, God required his priests to protect his holiness. God’s glory was revealed in blessing and in judgment.

Laws Regarding Uncleanness (Lev. 11–16)

Because he was present within the camp, God required the Israelites to maintain a camp that was ceremonially clean. Unclean people, animals, or objects were removed. Some objects and animals would be destroyed, permanently removing them from the camp. Others, like some animals and people, would be relocated outside the camp until they could be made clean again. Leviticus 11–16 made provision for all the ways things could become unclean and for how to deal with them.

Provision was made regarding childbirth, unclean animals, skin diseases, mildew, and bodily discharges. Provision was also made to atone for the sins of the people. One day each year, the high priest would provide for the atonement of the people. On this day, the Day of Atonement, the priest would take two goats, and by lot choose one to be a sin offering and the other to be a scapegoat. The priest would sacrifice the goat that was set aside as a sin offering and sprinkle its blood on the ark of the covenant. He would take the other goat, lay his hands on its head, and confess the sins of the nation. He would then send it into the desert carrying the sins of the people outside the camp.

Case Laws Regarding Holiness (Lev. 17–27)

The remainder of Leviticus reveals the far-reaching implications of Israel’s call to holiness by touching on how to remain holy in many different spheres of life, ranging from how to celebrate jubilee to how to maintain sexual purity. The list includes laws regarding sacrifice and food; laws regulating sexual behavior; laws for maintaining holiness toward God and one’s neighbor; laws for capital offenses; rules for priests; sacrifices; holy assemblies; and oil and loaves set before the Lord. The list continues with laws regarding blasphemy; laws regulating the sabbath year and the year of Jubilee; and ends with blessings and curses as well as laws regarding vows to God (Pratt 162). In all these areas, the Lord proclaimed his will that Israel imitate his holiness. Leviticus was intended to guide the Israelites in the way of holiness so that they would be set apart from the world and receive blessings instead of judgment as they lived near the special presence of their holy God.

Numbers

In the book of Numbers, we see further descriptions of God’s character. Numbers continues the themes of God’s presence and his holiness that were highlighted in Leviticus, but it also emphasizes God’s faithfulness and power (Sproul 193) This emphasis is important because Numbers was written to call the second generation of the exodus to begin the conquest of the Promised Land. They were to avoid the failures of the first generation and instead respond to their faithful and powerful God by serving as his holy army. We can divide Numbers into three sections: the preparation of the first-generation army; the failed march of the first-generation army; and the preparation of the second-generation army (Pratt 201-2).

The Preparation of the First-Generation Army (Num. 1:1–9:14)

The first section in Numbers shows how God prepared the first generation of the exodus to be his army. Numbers begins with God taking a census of the people. In Moses’ day, a census was taken by nations who were getting ready for war. This is what God was doing. He was preparing his people for battle. But God’s preparation of Israel was unique. God was preparing a holy army, one set apart to do his will in taking possession of the Promised Land. The emphasis for God’s army would not be on military preparation. Rather, it would be on setting apart the army that belonged to God.

One way this army was set apart was that God laid claim to all the first-born sons. But Numbers 3:41 tells us that he commanded Moses to take the Levites in their place. So, the Levites were set apart as holy to the Lord. The tasks of the Levites were set apart as well. The Levites performed all the duties connected with the tabernacle. Those duties are described in detail in Numbers 5–9. The men who made up God’s holy army were not to focus on their weapons or their strategies. Rather, their central focus would be the presence of God himself.

The Failed March of the First-Generation Army (Num. 9:15–25:18)

The march toward the Promised Land began with great hope, but complaints and rebellion led to the demise of nearly the entire generation. In Numbers 11, the people complained against the Lord, and he sent fire from heaven. Again, the people complained that they had no meat, and God promised them so much meat that it would come out of their nostrils, and they would loathe it. In chapter 12, the people, led by Miriam and Aaron, rebelled against Moses’ authority and suffered the consequences of their rebellion. Then chapters 13 and 14 detail the ultimate rebellion of the people in refusing to enter the Promised Land and learning that God would make their refusal to enter the land permanent. More rebellion followed, with Korah, Dathan, and Abiram opposing Moses and Aaron. Even Moses failed to obey God by not following God’s instructions at Kadesh and, in anger, striking a rock to obtain water instead of speaking to it, as God had commanded. As a result, Moses, too, was not allowed to enter the Promised Land.

Despite this, God showed mercy to his people. The section in Numbers ends with the Moabite king, Balak, calling the prophet, Balaam, to curse Israel, but discovering that Balaam could do nothing but bless the people of God. Even when Israel ended up following the sin of the Moabites, God remained a faithful God, preparing a second generation to move forward into the Promised Land.

The Preparation of the Second-Generation Army (Num. 26:1–36:13)

The failed march of the first-generation army is not the end of the story. Moses continued the narrative in Numbers by discussing the preparation of the second-generation army. This was the army that Moses addressed when he wrote Numbers. And this was the army that responded in obedience to God’s preparation of them.

Just as a census was taken of the first generation, so now a second census was taken of the second generation in Numbers 26–27. Again, the Lord prepared his people for battle, but this second census also showed the Lord using the census in preparation for the distribution of the conquered land. The battle had not yet begun, and it was, in effect, already decided. Just as the first generation focused on the tabernacle after the census was taken, so too, after the second census, the second generation focused on the tabernacle in chapters 28–31, demonstrating God’s love for Israel by restoring their numbers and reaffirming holy leadership for the nation. Finally, in chapters 32–36, the Lord gave instructions that would guide the people as they conquered the land, and distributed the land among themselves, including the transjordan tribes, and among the Levites with their cites of refuge.

Numbers was written to the second generation of Israelites to show them the consequences of their parents’ rebellion and to encourage them to take a stand as the second-generation army and to respond in faithfulness to God’s call to claim the land and enter it.

Deuteronomy

Like Numbers, Deuteronomy was written to the second generation of Israelites after the exodus as they were about to enter the Promised Land under Joshua’s leadership. It was written to encourage the members of this generation to commit themselves anew to the covenant that God made with his people through Moses. Like the other books in the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy was written by Moses. Moses addressed the people on the plains of Moab, as they were about to enter the land that he could not enter himself. Most of Deuteronomy is made up of three addresses given by Moses, with a conclusion taking up the last four chapters (Sproul 244).

Moses’ First Address (Deut. 1:1–4:43)

In his first address, Moses recounted Israel’s journey from Egypt to Mount Horeb. He also recounted Israel’s spiritual and military failures at Kadesh Barnea. He recounted the journey around Edom to the area east of the Jordan and the allocation of land to the tribes that would settle in that area. Throughout the address, Moses did not ignore his own personal failures and the price he would have to pay for those failures by not being allowed to enter the land. But he recounted his failures in the context of pleading with the Israelites to learn gratitude and loyalty to the Lord from his experience, from their experiences, and from the experiences of the previous generation.

Moses’ Second Address (Deut. 4:44–26:19)

In his second address, Moses dealt with how Israel was to live according to the law in the Land of Promise. Early in this speech, Moses recounted the Ten Commandments, which were first delivered on Mount Sinai and were now repeated to the second generation of Israelites on the plains of Moab. In repeating these commandments, Moses again acted as a mediator between God and his people.

Additional laws and stipulations followed. These laws focused on remaining loyal to the Lord, forsaking all other gods, and living in a way that expressed fidelity to God. Throughout this second address, Moses emphasized that the law was the Lord’s gracious gift to his people, showing them the path of life. Moses exhorted the people to remain committed to it.

Moses’ Third Address (Deut. 27:1–30:20)

Moses’ final address focused on covenant renewal as the people ratified the covenant that God made with them. Moses called Israel to renew her commitment to the covenant on the plains of Moab. This would not be the last covenant renewal ceremony for God’s people. Later, under Joshua, Israel would again participate in a covenant renewal ceremony in the valley between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim in the land of Canaan. But here on the plains of Moab, it was important for this second generation to renew its commitment to the covenant as they anticipated receiving the covenant blessing of land.

The covenant renewal included a description of the blessings of the covenant as well as the curses that would occur if the people disobeyed. The ultimate curse was exile from the land. But even if that occurred, Moses emphasized that God promised to return his people to the land and to his rich blessings.

Conclusion (Deut. 31:1–34:12)

After his final speech, Moses transferred his authority to Joshua. He celebrated the greatness of his God through a final song, and he gave the people of Israel a final blessing. With the recording of Moses’ obituary, the era of Moses’ leadership of Israel was over. Moses left God’s people with a solid foundation in their past and a firm direction for their future.

Moses ended his ministry emphasizing several important themes. Throughout Deuteronomy, Moses emphasized the unity of Israel rather than its division into various tribes and clans, often referring to the Israelites as brothers. Moses also emphasized the Word of God. In Deuteronomy, the Word of God is written, and it carries authority as a covenant document. Moses referred to the name of God twenty-one times in Deuteronomy. Through Moses, God emphasized that the people of Israel were his people by placing his name on them. Moses also emphasized worship. Israel would be different from the surrounding nations, who worshiped at a multitude of high places. Israel would worship at the place of God’s choosing and in the way that he would prescribe. And finally, Moses highlighted the blessings and curses of the covenant. God promised to bless Israel with the land of Canaan, but God also expected obedience from his children. Grave consequences were in place for those who disobeyed.

Application

When it comes to applying the Pentateuch, we need to start by examining how the original audience would have applied these books. Then we can turn to how Jesus applied them at the beginning of the New Testament age. Finally, we can examine how to apply them today. Our focus will be on developing a general approach to application that will serve as an aid in making specific applications through personal study of the text.

The Original Audience

The people who first received and applied the Pentateuch were the same people who had seen the mighty works of God in bringing them to the threshold of the Promised Land. The first generation of Israelites had seen how God had miraculously and mightily delivered them from Egypt. They had seen the awesome power of God demonstrated at Sinai. The second generation of Israelites had also experienced God’s mighty works. They had lived through the consequences of their parents’ rebellion. But they had also seen first-hand God’s fatherly care for them throughout their wilderness journeys, where their sandals and clothes never wore out, and food came to them from the hand of God.

When God gave his people the Pentateuch through Moses, God already had established a relationship with them, and the law he gave them cemented and defined that relationship. The Law gave the Israelites of Moses’ day their reason for existence. It set the foundation of their relationship with God in the work of God himself. The people of Israel saw God as the one who redeemed them from slavery in Egypt. But through the Pentateuch, they also saw God as the one who created them and continued to sustain them. When they recounted the stories of Abraham and the other patriarchs, they saw human beings who struggled just like they did to live out their redemption by living the way God created them to live. Their obedience to God’s law was likewise a response to their Creator and Redeemer.

When they established the tabernacle, they recognized that God, as Creator, was holy–set apart–and yet as a God who acted on behalf of his people, he was also present among them. The system of sacrifices showed God’s provision for the atonement of his people’s sin and his provision for keeping them in a right relationship with him. As they prepared to enter the land of Canaan, they knew that this wasn’t just any land, but it was the land that their God, their Creator, their Redeemer, had promised them. They claimed the land in grateful response to what their God had already done and what he promised to do. Every time they applied the law to their lives, it was in grateful response to their Creator and Redeemer.

Jesus’ Day

As we look to Jesus Christ and his application of the Pentateuch, we see that he applied these books with a similar understanding of God’s work in creation and redemption. The apostle John affirmed in chapter one of his gospel that Jesus Christ claimed a creative, sustaining, and redeeming role as the Word made flesh. It is out of this understanding of his role that he applied the Pentateuch to his own situation.

One example stands out. When Jesus was tempted by the devil in the wilderness, Jesus responded three times by quoting from the book of Deuteronomy. At the first temptation, Satan told a very hungry Jesus, “If you are the Son of God, command these stones to become loaves of bread” (Luke 4:3). Jesus replied by quoting Deuteronomy 8:3, which says, “Man does not live by bread alone, but man lives by every word that comes from the mouth of the Lord.” Jesus showed that he could claim God’s promise in Deuteronomy to provide for his people and sustain them.

Next, Satan tempted Jesus by taking him to a very high place and showing him the kingdoms of the world. Satan offered to give Jesus authority over all these kingdoms if he would but worship Satan. Jesus again replied from Deuteronomy, this time from 6:13, which says, “It is the Lord your God you shall fear. Him you shall serve.” Jesus demonstrated that while Satan could show him all the kingdoms of the world, the one to be worshiped was the Creator of all these kingdoms.

Finally, Satan brought Jesus to the highest point of the temple and tempted him by saying that God would save him if he threw himself down from that point. Again, Jesus answered from Deuteronomy when he quoted 6:16, which says, “You shall not put the Lord your God to the test.” Jesus knew that God in his function as Redeemer could certainly save him from any situation, but he also knew the warning from Deuteronomy not to test God in this way.

In all of these temptations, the same laws found in Deuteronomy applied equally to Jesus’ situation in the wilderness at the beginning of his ministry, because the creating, sustaining, and redeeming God who carried Israel through the wilderness was the same God who was carrying Jesus through his journey in the wilderness.

Today

Today, we can approach the application of the Law in much the same way that Jesus approached it. Too often, we start by asking, “Do we still need to sacrifice? Do we still need to eat kosher food? Do children who curse their parents still need to be stoned to death?” But instead of approaching the books this way, we must learn to approach them through the eyes of Jesus Christ. He didn't abolish the law; He fulfilled it. We can best apply the Pentateuch to our lives by seeing how they pointed to a God who created, sustained, and redeemed his people, and sent his own Son as the fulfillment of his creative, sustaining, and redemptive work.

Seen in this light, the sections of the law, the narrative sections, the covenant documents, the genealogies, and the poetry all make sense. They show us a God who designed all of creation, including humanity, to operate according to his will. They show us God working among his people and the people responding in gratitude, fear, praise, obedience, and at times repentance. Our response to this God can be no less.

Our response may differ in some of the specifics, but it will still rely on the same principles expounded in the Mosaic law. Justice for us may not mean establishing cities of refuge, but it may mean that those accused of murder are given a fair trial. Compassion may not mean that farmers need to leave part of their crop in the field for gleaners, but it does mean that we need to care for the poor among us. In all these areas, our calling is to respond in a way that shows our gratitude and obedience to our Creator and Redeemer.

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The Historical Books

One distinct difference between Christianity and other world religions is that Christians acknowledge the Creator of the universe to also be a personal God who acts in time and space to redeem his people. Our God acts in history. He acts in the lives of his people. We see a prime example of this in the Old Testament books of history: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.

Background

The historical books begin where Deuteronomy left off, with Israel poised to enter the Promised Land. They describe the history of Israel from the conquest of the land, through the period of the judges and Ruth, and into the united monarchies of Saul, David, and Solomon. They describe in detail the lives of the monarchs who reigned when the nation was divided into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. They show the unfaithfulness of the monarchs and the people until God finally brought them into exile, with Israel going to Assyria in 723 BC, and later Judah being taken captive by Babylon in 587 BC. The history continues with the book of Esther that describes events during the Babylonian exile that established the Feast of Purim. And it ends with the restoration of a remnant of God’s people described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.

The period recounted in these books spans roughly 1,000 years, from approximately 1,400 BC to 400 BC. Work on these books took place throughout these years, but at two points in this history, a number of these books were collected and edited into their final form: during the exile and after the return from exile. It also is important to remember that no matter how the books of history were collected into their final form, they are inspired Scripture. What is written is trustworthy and true. The authors recorded actual events in history, even as they wrote with theological purposes in mind.

Genres

The primary genre for the historical books is historical narrative. Since we discussed historical narrative in detail in the previous chapter, we will simply summarize the genre now; however, this does not make the genre any less important. We will also review the genre of poetry and take an in-depth look at the genre of genealogy. We turn first to historical narrative.

Historical Narrative

As you recall from chapter one, historical narrative uses a narrator who speaks from a specific point of view. Most historical narrative is written in the third person, but some books, like Ezra and Nehemiah, have large portions written in the first person. Historical narrative also follows a distinct plot structure, using the common literary elements of setting, beginning action, conflict, complications, resolution, and conclusion. But historical narrative is not literary fiction. It is true, historical fact written in story form.

Historical narrative is also written from a distinct perspective. Because of this, we can speak of it as being theological history, covenant history, redemptive history, and practical history. Above all, historical narrative is history that is written to make a point. It shows us God working in the lives of his people. It exhorts us with principles of godly living, and it points us to Jesus Christ, the center of all history.

Poetry

When examining Hebrew poetry in the historical books, three characteristics stand out. First, Hebrew poetry is concise. It uses minimal words for maximum effect. Second, it is often written in parallel structures. After one line is written in Hebrew poetry, a second line will often repeat themes and phrases, showing an intensification and progression of the original thought. And third, Hebrew poetry makes abundant use of imagery, helping us to understand abstract theological concepts through concrete images.

Genealogy

In addition to historical narrative and poetry, genealogy plays a role in the historical books. We will spend a bit more time discussing this genre since the historical books make extensive use of it. We see a large collection of genealogies in 1 Chronicles 1-9. By comparing the genealogies in these chapters, we see that they can take on a variety of forms and serve many functions. We will first look at some of the forms and functions as well as the purposes of genealogies.

The simplest type of genealogy followed a linear form, where one family line was traced through numerous generations. But genealogies could also follow a segmented form, where several family lines were segmented and sketched together (Longman Genesis 122). Genealogies could be segmented thematically to serve a variety of functions. For example, some of the genealogies of Levite families were segmented based on the duties they performed in the temple. Other genealogies were segmented geographically, according to allotted inheritance. Genealogies could also be segmented to serve political purposes.

The forms that genealogies took were never so rigid that they could not be adapted to serve specific functions. When necessary, genealogies could skip generations without notice to emphasize important persons or events. Genealogies could also include brief narratives within the genealogy to further explain crucial events. Genealogical forms are much more than simple lists of names. They are, in fact, quite varied. They present us with an interesting, even fascinating, look at God’s people through the generations (See McKenzie 124)

Genealogies were also written with a variety of purposes in mind. First, genealogies provided continuity for God’s people (Dockery 270). They served to connect the present generation of Israelites with all the generations that went before it. For example, in Nehemiah 11, Nehemiah listed the leaders of the remnant that returned with him and settled in Jerusalem. He listed the leaders and their fathers, and their father’s fathers for 14 generations. Can you list your family tree fourteen generations back? Think of the connection you would have with your family and community if you could.

Genealogies also provide strong support for the historicity of the Bible and the claim that all the people of the Bible, from Adam on down, were actual, living people. The author of Chronicles began his genealogies with Adam, chronicling Adam’s descendants through Noah, and from Noah all the way through the descendants of Abraham. All these people, at one time, walked this earth. For the chronicler this was no simple list of names. It traced God’s election of his people throughout history from the very beginning of history itself (Dockery 270). For the post-exilic Israelites who first read these words, these lists showed a continuous line of God’s chosen people from creation to the current day. They provide the same kind of continuity for God’s people today.

In addition, genealogies help us to provide accurate dates for many of the events of the Old Testament. In fact, there are times when the genealogies refer to specific events during the reigns of specific kings. For example, 1 Chronicles 4:39-41 states,

“They journeyed to the entrance of Gedor, to the east side of the valley, to seek pasture for their flocks, where they found rich, good pasture, and the land was very broad, quiet, and peaceful, for the former inhabitants there belonged to Ham. These, registered by name, came in the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah, and destroyed their tents and the Meunites who were found there, and marked them for destruction to this day, and settled in their place, because there was pasture there for their flocks.”

In this case, the chronicler provided a list of men and then specifically attributed certain events to these men, connecting those events with the reign of Hezekiah. The destruction of the Hamites and the Meunites came at the hands of these men during the reign of Hezekiah. We can further date events in biblical history by noting events that happened in generations before or after these men and placing them before or after the reign of Hezekiah.

Finally, genealogies show us that the God of Israel is a God who keeps his covenant. An example of God’s covenant faithfulness can be found in the description of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh that settled east of the Jordan River. First Chronicles 5 lists the genealogical record of these tribes from generation to generation, and then it recounts in verses 20-21:

“And when they prevailed over them, the Hagrites and all who were with them were given into their hands, for they cried out to God in the battle, and he granted their urgent plea because they trusted in him…. For many fell, because the war was of God. And they lived in their place until the exile.”

Notice the emphasis on covenant faithfulness—on God fighting the battle for Israel and on the covenant blessing of land that the people received all the way up to the exile. Genealogies form a rich and varied genre. They played a role in the Old Testament that went far beyond simply listing the names of ancestors. They continue to play an important role for Christians today, connecting us in a special way to all God’s people who went before us.

Authors and Audiences

Unlike the books of the Pentateuch, which were all written by Moses, the historical books had many authors who wrote in the context of different historical settings and audiences. Within the historical books, we can distinguish two specific times when books within this collection were compiled. The first set of books were originally authored at different times but were likely gathered into their final form shortly after the exile to Babylon. They were compiled at that time to address the crisis of faith with the exiled people of Judah. The second set of books was written for the people of God who had returned to the Promised Land after the Babylonian exile. (Sproul 294).

We will discuss both collections, as well as the two other writings of Ruth and Esther, which are also included in the historical books. We will start with the books written during the exile.

Books Compiled During the Exile

The books that form the first collection are Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings. We do not know with certainty the authors of these books. However, we can deduce a few facts about them, which will help us to understand and interpret them.

Authors

Talmudic tradition states that the author of the book of Joshua was Joshua, himself (Pratt 306). However, the book includes updated place names (15:9, 49, 54) and events that happened after Joshua died (15:13; 15:15; 19:47), so even if Joshua wrote most of the book, it was edited and put into its final form later.

Some have theorized that the book of Judges was written by Samuel. Others say that it was written by an anonymous author after the exile. It is likely that it, too, was compiled into a final form based on earlier versions of the book.

First and Second Samuel were originally one book. We can get a clue to authorship of these books from 1 Chronicles 29:29, which says, “Now the acts of King David, from first to last, are written in the Chronicles of Samuel, the seer, and in the Chronicles of Nathan the prophet, and in the Chronicles of Gad the seer….” It is possible that Samuel and his prophetic successors, Nathan and Gad, provided written sources that were used to compile the history that ultimately took the form of 1 and 2 Samuel.

The books of 1 and 2 Kings were also originally one book. The author is not identified. However, there are indications that he worked during the Babylonian exile to compile historical sources into the books of First and Second Kings. Second Kings ends with Jehoiachin detained in Babylon (2 Kings 25:27-30), and there is no mention of the people returning from exile in Babylon (Sproul 466).

Audience

Although the books in this first collection were written by various authors at different times, they were particularly helpful for the people of Judah who had been exiled to Babylon and were questioning God’s promises of an eternal inheritance of the land of Canaan and a permanent royal line made up of David’s descendants.

Literary Elements and Themes

The books in this collection are grouped together because they show a striking literary and thematic connection to the book of Deuteronomy. Several literary elements tie them together. The Lord’s commission in Joshua 1:2-9 consists entirely of expressions from Moses’ speeches in Deuteronomy. Judges refers to the book of Joshua by employing verbal repetition, historical parallels, and quotations from Joshua in each of its sections. It also looks ahead to the book of Samuel, recording in its later chapters the failure of the tribe of Benjamin, setting the stage for Samuel’s recording of the failure of the Benjamite kingship of Saul. Samuel and Kings, in turn, are related through their emphasis on the succession to David’s throne, from Solomon’s birth through his coronation (Pratt 304).

Several themes also run throughout these books. One of these themes relates to the prophets. Deuteronomy provided the test of a true prophet: His words must come to pass. After the office of prophet was established in 1 Samuel 9, these books provided numerous examples of prophetic words and their fulfillment. Joshua’s prophecy concerning Jericho was fulfilled. The prophetic words given to David were fulfilled when Solomon was established as king and built the temple. Men such as Elijah and Elisha provided concrete examples of prophets whose words came to pass.

Deuteronomy also established the theme of covenant, which played prominently throughout the rest of these books. God presented himself as a covenant God, faithful to his promises and requiring faithfulness from his people. But these books showed the people as unfaithful and disloyal. God did not fail his people. God’s people failed their Lord.

Deuteronomy also regulated Israel’s kingship, which was later established in 1 Samuel. While Israel remained a theocracy, God raised up leaders, culminating in his covenant with David’s house. This history of the kings of Judah ends with sinful King Jehoiakim in exile. But even here, there is hope. Jehoiakim, a descendant of David, was raised up to a seat of honor in captivity, pointing to the day when an even greater son of David, Jesus Christ, would come.

Finally, the Deuteronomic history emphasized the theme of repentance. God’s promises never fail. He promised judgment for those who broke the covenant, and judgment came. But he also promised a return to his blessings through repentance (Pratt 304-5).

Books Compiled After the Return from Exile

The books written after the return from exile cover much the same period as the earlier books but continue the history beyond where the earlier books stopped. The two histories differ in their point of reference. The earlier set based itself on Deuteronomy. The history written after the exile traced itself all the way back to Adam. It also focused on the history of Israel from the first to the second temple, which was anticipated in the final verses of 2 Chronicles.

Authors

First and Second Chronicles were originally written as one book by a person referred to as the Chronicler. Jewish tradition considers Ezra to be the primary author, but there is no way to know for certain. The text itself indicates that the Chronicler wrote these books after the exile and that he used numerous sources to compile the text (Sproul 557).

Ezra and Nehemiah, as well, were originally composed as one book, and are often referred to as Ezra-Nehemiah. Traditionally, Ezra has been considered the author, but we cannot be completely certain about this. If Ezra was not the author, he was at least significantly involved in the writing of the book. He was certainly the author of his memoirs that appear toward the end of the book of Ezra. Nehemiah also played a role. There is no doubt that he composed his memoirs that were incorporated into various passages in the book of Nehemiah.

Original Audience

These books were edited for God’s people who returned to the land of Canaan after the Babylonian exile. Although they had been restored to the land, they were but a small remnant of the nation that had originally been sent to captivity. And the land to which they returned was no longer an autonomous country. It was now one of the many provinces of the Persian empire. These books were written to encourage a people who had been ruined in captivity, and who returned to a land that was ruined. In those circumstances, they were easily discouraged. The books compiled during this time counteracted that discouragement by emphasizing the glory of the Davidic dynasty. It described in detail the glory of the first temple. And it emphasized the importance of keeping the covenant and remaining faithful to the Lord. The Lord was the glory of Israel. The Lord was the hope of Israel. Faithfulness to the Lord would bring glory and hope again. (Sproul 558-59)

Literary and Religious Connections

Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah share numerous literary and religious connections. The ending of Chronicles quotes the decree of Cyrus, King of Persia, returning the Jews to their land. The beginning of Ezra-Nehemiah repeats that decree, connecting it with the book of Chronicles that comes before it. In addition, the two books share similar religious interests. The descriptions of the first temple in Chronicles and the second temple in Ezra-Nehemiah are similar. They both describe the preparations for building in similar ways. They both refer to the heads of ancestral houses endowing the work. And they both show an interest in sacred vessels and in the order of sacrifices (Longman and Dillard 192-94).

Books Compiled at Other Times

The Talmud identifies Samuel as the author of the book of Ruth, but there is little evidence to commend this view (Longman and Dillard 147). Ruth was likely written to the people of Israel during David’s reign since it gave a background to the kingship of David.

The author of the book of Esther was likely a Persian Jew living in Susa (Sproul 678). The author showed intense loyalty to the Jewish nation, as well as an intimate knowledge of the Persian court. Esther was written to the Jews who survived the events described in the book and to all the Jews who came after them. It gave a background to the establishment of the Feast of Purim.

Content

Following the order that we laid out earlier in this chapter, we will discuss the content of the books, starting with the books compiled during the exile, then moving to the books compiled after the return from exile and ending with Ruth and Esther.

Joshua

The book of Joshua takes up the history of God’s people from where Deuteronomy left off. Moses had just died, and the Israelites were camped in the plains of Moab, preparing to enter the land. The book of Joshua describes the events that took place when the Israelites finally entered the land. It describes the conquest of the land in chapters 1–12 when the Israelites rooted out the Canaanites. It goes on to describe the distribution of the land, in chapters 13–21, as the rightful inheritance of God’s people. And it describes the covenant renewal, in chapters 22–34, that took place between God and his people after the land was distributed. Let’s take a closer look at each of these sections, beginning with the conquest of the land.

The Conquest of the Land (Josh. 1-12)

The book of Joshua begins with God commissioning Joshua for the task at hand. Joshua was to prepare the people to cross the Jordan and to begin a holy war against the people living in the Promised Land (Longman and Dillard 129). The Lord exhorted Joshua to be strong and courageous and to be careful to obey all the law given to him by Moses. Because this was a holy war, obedience to the law was more important than military strength (McKenzie 54). It signified the people’s dependence on the Lord God of Israel as their strength. In taking on this leadership role, Joshua was completing the work that Moses had begun when he led the people of Israel out of Egypt toward the Promised Land. The Lord emphasized this transition when he parted the waters of the Jordan for Joshua, reminding all the people what the Lord had done through Moses at the Red Sea.

When Israel was safely across the Jordan, they were in a position to begin their conquest of the Promised Land, beginning with the city of Jericho. But, interestingly, they did not head straight to Jericho to begin a military assault. Instead, they camped at Gilgal, and all the men of Israel were circumcised. While at Gilgal, the Israelites celebrated the Passover, and a day after the Passover, they ate some of the produce of the land of Canaan, and the manna that had fed them for years in the wilderness stopped. Their wilderness wanderings were finished. Their redemption from Egypt was complete. And they began their new life in the Promised Land with a renewed obedience to their covenant God, as signified by the administration of circumcision and the celebration of the Passover. What looked like a strange way to begin the conquest of the land, was, in fact, the best way to begin it.

The first battle at Jericho also showed a unique way to begin the conquest of the land. The Israelites marched to Jericho, but instead of fighting against it, they marched around the city one time with the priests carrying the ark of the covenant going with them. They did this for six days, and on the seventh day, they marched around the city seven times, the priest blew their trumpets, the people shouted, and the walls of the city collapsed. Conquering Jericho in this way showed the Israelites where their true strength really was. It was found in the Lord their God, through obedience to him.

The beginning of the conquest also showed the consequences of disobedience. Jericho was to be devoted totally to the Lord. God required that the entire city, with the exception of Rahab, be destroyed. But Achan, seeing the treasures of the city, kept some of them and hid them in his tent. Israel suffered defeat when they fought their next battle at Ai, and they only returned to the Lord’s favor when they destroyed Achan and his family, rooting his sin out of the camp.

The conquest that remained showed how Joshua and the people of Israel took the land in faithful obedience, but also how they failed in so many ways through their disobedience. The conquest began in southern Canaan, where the Philistines lived, and then moved on to northern Canaan. Even when the Israelites fought the Philistines, they were only able to conquer the hill country. The fertile valleys were left in the hands of the Philistines. The reason the Israelites gave for this failure was that the Philistines had chariots that could maneuver well in the valleys, but the real reason was that the Israelites, in their disobedience, were not able to trust the Lord enough to conquer the land. The tribe of Dan actually moved its territory from southern Canaan to an area much further to the north because of their lack of trust in the Lord. However, at the end of the conquest, even though many people groups remained in the land, Joshua could rightfully say that the entire land, from south to north, was conquered.

The Distribution of the Land (Josh. 13-21)

After the initial conquest of the land, many people groups remained to be conquered. But the Lord, recognizing Joshua’s advanced age, commanded Joshua to divide the land among the people of Israel (see Keil and Delitzsch 105-157). This division would later help to settle disputes that would arise among the Israelites after Joshua was gone.

The first tribes to receive their distribution were the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh that requested land on the eastern side of the Jordan River. The northernmost territory east of the Jordan was occupied by the half-tribe of Manasseh. Gad occupied the territory immediately south of the half-tribe of Manasseh. And Reuben occupied the southernmost territory, which lay roughly east of the Dead Sea. The distribution of land continued west of the Jordan but began not with a tribe, but with a person: Caleb and Joshua were the only two from their generation allowed to enter the land, and now Caleb received his inheritance. He continued his fearless ways even in his old age by requesting the city of Hebron even though the Anakim, the giants of the land, lived there.

Following the distribution of Hebron to Caleb, the three major tribes of Israel: Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh received their inheritance. The remaining tribes of Benjamin, Simeon, Zebulon, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan were given their inheritance. And finally, an allotment of land was given to Joshua in the hill country of Ephraim. Joshua also designated cities of refuge throughout the land. These cities were designated in obedience to the law of Moses and provided a safe place for certain offenders to escape unjust vengeance and seek a fair trial. Also, in accordance with the law of Moses, Levi was not given an inheritance of land. However, the Levites were given towns throughout the land where they could live.

Covenant Renewal (Josh. 22-34)

Following the conquest of the land and the distribution of the land, the people of Israel engaged in covenant renewal, which focused on their faithfulness as a response to God faithfully keeping his promises to them. (see Dockery 206)

The tribes east of the Jordan had kept their word to fight alongside their brothers west of the Jordan until the conquest was finished. They even set up a monument by the Jordan river, on the border between them and the rest of Israel to stand as a witness to all the generations that the transjordan tribes would remain faithful to the God of Israel. But it wasn’t just the transjordan tribes that were required to remain faithful. Joshua gathered all the people of Israel at Shechem and exhorted them to be strong and to be careful to obey all that was written in the book of the law of Moses. He said in 24:14-15,

“Now therefore fear the Lord and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness. Put away the gods that your fathers served beyond the River and in Egypt, and serve the Lord. And if it is evil in your eyes to serve the Lord, choose this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your fathers served in the region beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you dwell. But as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord.”

In responding to Joshua’s call to covenant renewal, the people of Israel confirmed their desire to serve God alone, acknowledging all that he had done for them in delivering them from Egypt and bringing them to the land of Canaan.

Judges

At the end of Joshua, the people of Israel made a strong commitment to remain faithful to their covenant God. And the people served the Lord throughout the lifetime of Joshua and the elders that served Joshua. But after Joshua and his generation died, the people faltered in their commitment. They failed to live up to their covenant obligations, which created a new situation that is described in the book of Judges, showing the Lord held true to the covenant even though the people failed over and over again. (De Graaf Promise and Deliverance, v. II, 11-12)

Judges begins by describing how the Israelite tribes planned to continue the conquest of Canaan after the death of Joshua. They went straight to the Lord and asked him who should fight against the Canaanites first. The Lord indicated Judah, and when Judah obeyed, it was victorious over the Canaanites and the Perizzites. Other tribes continued the conquest. Some were victorious, but many failed to completely drive out the Canaanites. Judges chapter two tells us why. An angel of the Lord spoke to the Israelites at Bokim and told them that they disobeyed the Lord, and because of that, the Lord would not completely drive the nations out from the land. Rather, these nations would be a thorn in their sides and a snare to them. The people wept aloud, but the consequences remained.

Judges 2:10-19 describe a repeating cycle that began after Joshua's generation had died. When the next generation grew up, they quickly fell into sin. Joshua 2:10-13 describe it this way:

“And all that generation also were gathered to their fathers. And there arose another generation after them who did not know the Lord or the work that he had done for Israel. And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord and served the Baals. And they abandoned the Lord, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt. They went after other gods, from among the gods of the peoples who were around them, and bowed down to them. And they provoked the Lord to anger. They abandoned the Lord and served the Baals and the Ashtaroth.”

The Lord then sent judgment. Judges 2:14-15 says,

“So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he gave them over to plunderers, who plundered them. And he sold them into the hand of their surrounding enemies, so that they could no longer withstand their enemies. Whenever they marched out, the hand of the Lord was against them for harm, as the Lord had warned, and as the Lord had sworn to them. And they were in terrible distress.”

But the Lord also sent deliverance to his people. Judges 2:16 and 18 say,

“Then the Lord raised up judges, who saved them out of the hand of those who plundered them…. Whenever the Lord raised up judges for them, the Lord was with the judge, and he saved them from the hand of their enemies all the days of the judge. For the Lord was moved to pity by their groaning because of those who afflicted and oppressed them.”

But the deliverance was short-lived. Each time the people of Israel were delivered, they would soon return to sin. Judges 2:17 and 19 describe their heartbreaking return to sin:

“Yet they did not listen to their judges, for they whored after other gods and bowed down to them. They soon turned aside from the way in which their fathers walked, who had obeyed the commandments of the Lord, and they did not do so…. But whenever the judge died, they turned back and were more corrupt than their fathers, going after other gods, serving them and bowing down to them. They did not drop any of their practices or their stubborn ways.”

The Twelve Judges

This cycle of sin, judgment, deliverance, and returning to sin occurred repeatedly. The book of Judges describes twelve judges who brought deliverance to God’s people. Some are mentioned briefly in a verse or two, while others are given extensive coverage over several chapters. The twelve judges are listed below:

Othniel

3:7-11

Othniel gave relief from Cushan-Rishathaim, king of Aram Naharaim, to whom the Israelites were subjects for eight years. After that, the land had peace for 40 years.

Ehud

3:12-30

Ehud gave relief from Eglon, king of Moab, to whom the Israelites were subjected for 18 years. And the land had peace for 80 years.

Shamgar

3:31

Shamgar struck down 600 Philistines with an oxgoad.

Deborah

4:1–5:31

Deborah gave relief from Jaban, king of Canaan, who oppressed Israel for 20 years. After that, the land had peace for 40 years.

Gideon

6:1–8:32

Gideon delivered Israel from seven years of oppression by the Midianites and gave the land rest for 40 years.

Tola

10:1-2

Tola judged Israel for 23 years. He saved Israel from oppression, but the author of Judges did not mention the oppressor.

Jair

10:3-5

Jair followed Tola and judged Israel for 22 years.

Jephthah

10:6–12:7

Jephthah saved Israel from the Philistines and the Ammonites, who oppressed Israel for 18 years. He led Israel for six years.

Ibzan

12:8-10

Ibzan followed Jephthah and led Israel for seven years.

Elon

12:11-12

Elon led Israel for ten years.

Abdon

12:13-15

Abdon led Israel for eight years.

Samson

13:1–16:31

Samson delivered Israel from the hands of the Philistines and led Israel for 20 years.

An Example from the Life of Gideon

In this survey of the Old Testament, we cannot go through the lives of all the judges, but we can take one as an example. Let’s take a look at how the cycle of the judges played itself out in the life of Gideon.[3] After the deliverance from Jabin, king of Canaan, that was brought about through Deborah and Barak, the land of Israel had peace for 40 years. But as in times past, the Israelites forgot the deliverance of the Lord and returned to their sin. With some judges, the writer described the kinds of sin the Israelites fell into. However, with Gideon, it is enough to know that they did evil in the eyes of the Lord. Regardless of their particular sins, the Israelites were in a state of disobedience against their Lord.

Because of their sin, the Lord brought about the curses of his covenant by giving the Israelites into the hands of the Midianites for seven years. The Midianites, as well as the Amalekites and other eastern peoples, engaged in unchecked raids against the Israelites, attacking their homes, their livestock, and their land. Whenever the Israelites planted seed, the Midianites came and raided the crops at harvest time. If the Israelites raised livestock, the Midianites would take those, too. It got so bad that the Israelites took to living in caves in the hills and mountains rather than risk living out in the open.

God, through his angel, called Gideon to deliver Israel from this oppression. But Gideon was not a strong judge. He needed assurance from God before he would begin the deliverance of Israel, which God amply provided. Gideon began his deliverance of Israel by first addressing the heart of the sin that brought on the oppression. Gideon tore down his father’s altar to Baal and the Asherah pole beside it and used the wood to offer a proper sacrifice to the Lord God. Only then did he call the people to military action. But the military action was unique. Following God’s explicit instructions Gideon, the weak leader, would fight the Midianites with only 300 men. Gideon sent the rest of the army away. Gideon’s men simply smashed some jars, raised their torches, and shouted. God provided the victory by using this action of Gideon and his men to confuse the Midianite camp and have them turn on each other.

The people, however, did not recognize God as the author of their victory. Rather, they asked Gideon to rule over them. But Gideon, at first, wanted none of that. Gideon told them that he would not rule over them, nor would any of his sons rule over them. God would rule over them. But although Gideon did not claim the responsibilities of kingship, he did claim some of its pleasures. The Israelites gave him gold and royal robes. And he established a haram that gave him 70 sons. He also built an ephod that Israel used to return to their idolatry. After he died, one of Gideon’s sons, Abimelech, tried to establish a kingship for himself. He killed all his brothers except one but ended up also dying young. The story of Gideon ended in sin and failure with God repaying Abimelech according to his wickedness.

The end of the book of Judged describes the failure of the Levites in chapters 17–21. Not only did the people and the judges fail in their obedience to their Lord, but the very tribe that was charged with maintaining the sacraments of the Lord failed in its obedience, and its failure reached remarkably low levels. Judges 17–18 tell the story of a Levite who sold his services to a man named Micah in order to be a priest to a false god for Micah and his family. The Levite performed his services until the tribe of Dan came along. The people of Dan were looking for a new place to live since through their unfaithfulness, they were not able to conquer the land that was allotted to them. The priest, seeing an opportunity to be a priest of an entire tribe, went with them willingly. Another story in chapters 19–21 shows a Levite reclaiming his concubine after she had run away, but then letting her be raped, abused, and finally killed by the men of Benjamin. The heartbreaking violence was increased when the Levite cut apart the body of his concubine and sent pieces of it to the other tribes of Israel. Israel ended up in a time of civil war, with the tribe of Benjamin nearly being wiped out. The period of the judges clearly was not able to bring about the obedience of the people. The people failed. The judges failed. Even the Levites failed to honor the Lord their God.

1 and 2 Samuel

Since the books of Samuel were originally one book, we will discuss them together. The two books of Samuel recount the lives of Samuel, Saul, and David. Samuel was perhaps the greatest judge in the history of Israel. As the last of the judges, he prepared the way for the monarchy, anointing Saul, then removing him from the kingship and anointing David.

The Life of Samuel (1 Sam. 1–7)

The first seven chapters in 1 Samuel established Samuel in his role. These chapters detailed the miraculous birth of Samuel in response to the prayer of his mother, Hannah. They show the failure of Eli as priest and father, sanctioning the rise of Samuel and his eventual replacement of Eli as priest.

The Life of Saul (1 Sam. 8–15)

Chapters 8–15 of 1 Samuel describe the life of Saul, particularly his rise and fall as king and the role Samuel played in supporting and later opposing his kingship. Saul became king because the people of Israel wanted a king. Samuel opposed the idea but went ahead with it when the Lord said in 8:7, “Obey the voice of the people in all that they say to you, for they have not rejected you, but they have rejected me from being king over them” Samuel anointed Saul as king, even though Saul at first seemed reluctant to claim the responsibilities of king. This soon passed, however, and Saul quickly established himself as a powerful leader of his people. But this did not take away the sin of the people in asking for a king. Samuel reminded them of their sin in his farewell speech in chapter 12 but exhorted them to remain faithful.

As soon as Saul was established as king, he failed in his office. Saul encroached on the priestly office in 1 Samuel 13. He threatened his son because of a foolish vow in chapter 14. And despite receiving many blessings from God, he showed ingratitude by sparing the Amalekites in chapter 15. Because of Saul’s failures, Samuel made it clear that the kingship would be torn from Saul and given to another. But the Lord did not tear the kingship from Saul immediately. In fact, Saul’s successor, David, would spend several years in Saul’s service as a member of Saul’s royal court.

The Life of David (1 Sam. 16 – 2 Sam. 24)

At first Saul was pleased with David. David soothed him with songs from his lyre, and David was a strong warrior for Saul. However, as David’s successes on the battlefield grew, so did Saul’s jealousy of David. Saul attempted to have David killed in battle and even tried to kill David directly, attempting to pin David against a wall with his spear. The situation was so bad that David finally had to flee for his life. He ended up hiding in caves in the wilderness, finding sanctuary among Saul’s enemies, and living the life of a fugitive. But the more David fled as a fugitive, the more innocent he was shown to be. Saul chased David like a madman. But David refused to retaliate for Saul’s treatment of him. Even when circumstances provided a perfect opportunity for David to take Saul’s life, David refused to lift a hand against the Lord’s anointed. Instead, Saul died by his own hand, falling on his sword when surrounded in battle.

After the death of Saul, the men of Judah quickly anointed David king. Later, the entire kingdom of Israel united under David’s rule. But even though the Lord had established David as king, David was unable to remain faithful to him, and David’s kingdom suffered for it. As we shall see in the life of David and the kings of Israel and Judah that followed him, their failures as kings had far-reaching consequences as well as immediate consequences.

David’s reign can be divided into two periods: the period under God’s blessing in 2 Samuel 2–10, and the period under God’s curse in 2 Samuel 11–20. God showed his blessing to David when he allowed him to establish his throne in Israel even though there was a contingency of men who were loyal to Saul’s family and wanted Ish-Bosheth, Saul’s son, to be king. A war between the house of Saul and the house of David followed that ended with the murder of Ish-Bosheth and the victory of David. God’s blessing can also be seen in the establishment of David’s throne in Jerusalem. For seven years, David reigned in Hebron, but then David was able to capture Jerusalem from the Jebusites. David built a palace in Jerusalem and settled there intending to build a temple as well. The Lord postponed David’s plans for the temple, but promised David that he would establish a house for David saying in 2 Samuel 7:15-16,

“[M]y steadfast love will not depart from him [David’s offspring], as I took it from Saul, whom I put away from before you. And your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me. Your throne shall be established forever.”

David also felt God’s curse, and the writer of the books of Samuel does not shy away from describing in detail the cause. He begins with a lengthy description of David’s adulterous relationship with Bathsheba and the subsequent murder of Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah. As king, David had the power to nearly get away with these sins. But the prophet Nathan reminded David that ultimately these sins were committed against the Lord, that these sins could not remain hidden, and that dreadful consequences would surely result from them. Not only would the baby conceived in the relationship die, but David’s kingdom would be shaken to its very core.

David was followed in his sexual sin by his son Amnon. Amnon had lustful thoughts about his half-sister Tamar and concocted a scheme to act on his thoughts. Tamar’s brother, Absalom, in turn, avenged Tamar by killing Amnon two years later. The deeds of Amnon and Absalom set David’s house in turmoil, but Absalom was not finished. He would later rebel against David, try to set himself up as king, and send Israel into a civil war, forcing David to flee for his life.

But God had made promises to David. Despite David’s shortcomings, despite the immediate retribution that David’s sins brought, God had determined to bless David again. God would show unfailing kindness to David and his descendants forever so that David could say at the end of his life in 2 Samuel 22:47, “The Lord lives, and blessed by my rock, and exalted by my God, the rock of my salvation.”

1 and 2 Kings

As part of history compiled during the exile, the books of 1 and 2 Kings pick up where 1 and 2 Samuel left off. At the end of 2 Samuel, David died. First Kings picks up the story with the reign of Solomon in 1 Kings 1–11 and then continues after Solomon’s death to describe the divided monarchy in 1 Kings 12 through 2 Kings 17, and the kingdom of Judah alone in 2 Kings 18–25, after the northern ten tribes were taken captive by Assyria. Let’s examine these sections in more detail, beginning with the reign of Solomon.

The Reign of Solomon (1 Kings 1–11)

Just as David’s reign was marked initially by God’s blessing and followed later by God’s curse, so Solomon’s reign began with God’s blessing but ended under God’s curse. Solomon began his reign as the rightful successor to David’s throne. Another of David’s sons, Adonijah, had attempted to claim the throne. To avert Adonijah’s plans, David named Solomon as king to reign in his place. The height of blessing for Solomon was the establishment of temple worship in Israel. First Kings 3–9 shows Solomon beginning his rule by asking for wisdom, making preparation for building the temple and accomplishing the building, and finally dedicating the temple before all Israel.

Sadly, while Solomon’s early reign was blessed, his later kingship was cursed. As king, Solomon made alliances and agreements with other nations. These alliances were not necessarily evil. The Queen of Sheba met with Solomon and left glorifying God. However, many of these international alliances involved Solomon’s acquisition of foreign wives, and with foreign wives came foreign gods.

The author of Kings put this way: “King Solomon, however, loved many foreign women besides Pharaoh’s daughter--Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Sidonians, and Hittites. They were from nations about which the Lord had told the Israelites, ‘You must not intermarry with them, because they will surely turn your hearts after their gods.’ Nevertheless, Solomon held fast to them in love” (1 Kings 11:1-2). The consequence for Solomon’s disobedience is stated in verse 4: “As Solomon grew old, his wives turned his heart after other gods, and his heart was not fully devoted to the Lord his God, as the heart of David his father had been.”

The Lord brought curses upon Solomon’s kingdom through the rebellions of Hadad, Rezon, and finally, Jeroboam. But Solomon, instead of turning back to the Lord, tried to deal with the rebellion in his own way by attempting to kill Jeroboam. What began as a glorious reign ended with a kingdom ready to split apart.

The Divided Monarchy (1 Kings 12 – 2 Kings 17)

After Solomon died, Rehoboam, his son, succeeded him as king. Rehoboam showed quite early that he did not inherit the wisdom of his father. When the people of Israel asked him if he would lighten the heavy load placed upon them by Solomon, Rehoboam responded by saying he would make their load even heavier. This provoked a majority of Israelites to forsake the line of David and follow Jeroboam, one of Solomon’s servants. From this point until the ten tribes of Israel were to be taken into captivity by Assyria, two monarchies were active in Israel. The line of David ruled Judah from Jerusalem, while the monarchies that came and went in Israel ruled from Samaria.

During the reigns of Rehoboam, Abijam, and Asa in Judah, Jeroboam I and later his son Nadab reigned in Israel. The reign of Nadab was cut short after two years through assassination. The man who assassinated him, Baasha, became king, and his son Elah succeeded him to the throne. Elah was assassinated by Zimri, setting up a power struggle in Israel that led to Zimri’s death and the accession to the throne of Omri and his son Ahab. Omri was more evil than all the kings before him, and Ahab as even worse. During this time, Elijah and Elisha prophesied in Israel.

In Judah, Asa died after a long and good rule, and Jehoshaphat, his son, succeeded him as king. Jehoshaphat, too, did what was right in the eyes of the Lord. But his son, Jehoram, and grandson, Azaziah, did not. During this time in Israel, Omri’s line continued through Ahaziah and Joram. Omri’s line was cut short when Jehu killed Joram of Israel. The line of Ahaziah in Judah was almost cut short when Jehu killed him as well. Jehu’s line continued to the fourth generation after him, as was prophesied, while in Judah a power struggle after the death of Ahaziah resulted in Ahaziah’s mother succeeding to the throne for six years and killing all but one of her grandchildren. This grandson, Joash, was placed on the throne when he was seven years old, and Athaliah was executed. Following Joash, three generations of kings, Amaziah, Azariah, and Jotham, were mostly good.

In the north, after Zechariah was assassinated, Israel suffered through the evil reigns of Shallum, Menahem and his son Pekahiah, Pekah, and Hoshea. It was during Hoshea’s reign that Israel was taken captive to Assyria in 722 to 721BC because of their sin. At that time, Hezekiah was king over Judah.

The Kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 18–25)

The Lord stopped Assyria from conquering Judah because of Hezekiah king of Judah. But the kings of Judah after Hezekiah were all very bad. Judah remained sovereign as a nation for another 135 years until the Lord also brought them into captivity through Babylon in 586BC. The final years of Judah showed the wonderful grace of God through Hezekiah, as he rewarded Hezekiah’s faithfulness. But it also showed the severity of his judgment against the house of David for their apostasy. But even in the captivity of Judah, hope remained, as God promised that Judah’s exile would be temporary and that David’s line would one day be restored.

1 and 2 Chronicles

Chronicles is part of the history of Israel compiled after the return from Babylonian exile. It was written after the restoration of the kingdom and addressed the needs of the people who made up the restored kingdom. Because Chronicles illuminates the same historical period as the books of Samuel and Kings, we will not repeat what was already discussed in our summaries of those books. Rather, we will take a slightly different approach by first examining the distinctive elements of Chronicles that set this book apart from Samuel and Kings[4], and then providing a brief summary that shows how the Chronicler developed these distinctive elements in history that he wrote.

Distinct Elements in 1 and 2 Chronicles

Throughout Chronicles the phrase, “all Israel” is frequently used (Longman and Dillard 196). The focus of the Chronicler was on the people of God, especially on the people of God who had returned from exile. When the Chronicler used this phrase in his writing, he sometimes meant it in a narrow sense, referring the representatives of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh, who returned. But he also used it in a broad sense, referring to all those descendants of the tribes of Israel, whether they had returned or not. His intent was to call the people of God, in the narrow sense, back to faithfulness, which would result in blessing for all the people of God, in the broad sense. As Hezekiah put it in 2 Chronicles 30:9:

“For if you return to the Lord, your brothers and your children will find compassion with their captors and return to this land. For the Lord your God is gracious and merciful and will not turn away his face from you if you return to him.”

In his genealogies and elsewhere, the Chronicler placed special emphasis on the throne of David and the temple in Jerusalem. For the Chronicler, the establishment of the Davidic dynasty was a demonstration of God’s love and blessing for Israel mediated through righteous kingship (Knowles 170-71). Likewise, the temple in Jerusalem represented God’s presence among his people, and the worship of God, where his presence was known, was a source of true joy for the people. As the Chronicler emphasized, the full restoration of Israel was impossible with the accompanying restoration of the throne of David and the Jerusalem temple. But even the restoration of the throne of David and the Jerusalem temple could not bring divine blessing on their own. Divine blessing would only come through faithfulness, just as divine judgment would come through unfaithfulness. As the prophet Azariah said in 2 Chronicles 15:2, “If you seek him, he will be found by you, but if you forsake him, he will forsake you.”

In connecting blessing with faithfulness and judgment with unfaithfulness, the Chronicler was showing the restored people of God the way to divine blessing in their day (Sproul 558-9). Even after living through intense divine judgment from God, the people could be restored to blessing by humbly seeking God through repentance and prayer and in living lives of faithfulness to him. When the Chronicler wrote about the people of God, the throne of David, the restoration of the temple, and divine blessing and judgment, he was establishing Israel’s hope in the coming of the Messiah because the ultimate restoration of the kingdom is found only in Jesus Christ. The people of God, the ones who follow Christ, are heirs of Israel’s promises, and because of Christ, these promises are extended even to his followers among the Gentiles. And these promises will one day be fulfilled for the people of God when Jesus Christ comes again. The restoration of David's throne was also fulfilled in Christ. Jesus Christ was born in the line of David. He is now seated on his throne in heaven. And his kingdom will have no end. The temple found its fulfillment in Christ, the one who stood as the perfect atonement for sin, who daily intercedes on behalf of his people, and who will return to bring his people into the blessed presence of God. The Chronicler’s emphasis on divine blessing and judgment also anticipated the work of Jesus Christ, who suffered death on the cross to deliver us from judgment, who lived a life of perfect faithfulness, and who grants his people deliverance from sin and new lives of righteousness. In seeking the restoration of the kingdom in his day, the Chronicler also pointed forward to the ultimate restoration of the kingdom which was inaugurated at Christ’s first coming and will be consummated one day when Christ returns (Pratt 598)

Summaries of 1 and 2 Chronicles

Now that we have examined some of the distinctive elements of 1 and 2 Chronicles, we can give a brief summary of these two books. The books can be divided into four parts: the genealogies of Israel, the united kingdom, the divided kingdom, and the reunited kingdom.

The Chronicler provides genealogies of Israel in 1:1–9:34. The Chronicler was writing to the people of God who had returned from exile, so it was vital that he connect this remnant with the people of God who went before them. The Chronicler went to great lengths to include the genealogies of both the Southern and Northern tribes, indicating that the remnant who returned were the legitimate continuation of God’s people as a whole. As the continuation of God’s people, the remnant could expect the same blessing promised by God through the generations of Israel, and they had a solid basis for their hope in a future, full restoration of God’s people. But the remnant was also called to exercise the same responsibilities. They were called to focus on faithfulness to their Lord and, in particular, to observe the divinely ordained arrangements of the Davidic and Levitical families.

The united kingdom is covered in 1 Chronicles 9:35 through 2 Chronicles 9:31. Although this history is also covered in 2 Samuel and 1 Kings, the Chronicler gave the history a different focus. He presented the reigns of David and Solomon in their ideal, focusing on the positive elements of their reigns and not including many of their well-known shortcomings (Longman and Dillard 197). The Chronicler showed an ideal kingdom, where the king, the temple, and the people were all united. He showed the blessings that came when David’s line and the temple functioned properly. But he also called the post-exilic community to follow the examples of David and Solomon, to devote themselves to temple worship, and to humbly and faithfully rely on their God for his blessings.

The divided kingdom is covered in 2 Chronicles 10–28. In recording the history of the divided kingdom, the Chronicler focused on events in the southern kingdom, where the Davidic line and the temple resided, omitting large sections of history from the northern kingdom. He continued to hold the united kingdom as the ideal kingdom and evaluated the kings of the divided kingdom according to his ideal standard. When the king and people were faithful, they enjoyed the blessings of God. But when they were disobedient, the experienced ever-increasing trouble and pain until finally the northern kingdom was swept away by Assyria.

During the reign of Hezekiah, after the northern kingdom was taken captive, Israel again functioned as a reunited kingdom. The Chronicler described this period of Israel’s history in 2 Chronicles 29–36. Hezekiah reunited Judah and the faithful remnant from the northern kingdom around the throne of David and temple worship. The Chronicler showed the blessings that resulted from their upholding of these institutions. But he also showed their failure, particularly in the reigns of Manasseh, Amon, and the kings of Judah immediately prior to the exile of the southern kingdom. But in distinction from the similar history in Kings, the Chronicler showed how each of these failures was followed by God’s gracious renewal of his people, even in the reign of Manasseh. It was important for the Chronicler to communicate to the post-exilic community that God’s blessing could still come, despite any failures that occurred in the past—but humble faithfulness was required. (Dockery 283-7).

Ezra-Nehemiah

Although Ezra and Nehemiah are listed as two books in modern Bibles, they were originally one book, and so we will discuss them together. Ezra and Nehemiah are part of the history written to the Jews who had returned to the Promised Land after the exile. They were intended to encourage this struggling community by recounting the work that Ezra and Nehemiah had begun, the struggles they endured, and the triumphs they achieved throughout their struggles.

Ezra and Nehemiah have four major sections (Pratt 694, 712):

1. Ezra 1:1–6:22      The return of the exiles and the rebuilding of the temple

2. Ezra 7:1–10:44      The return of Ezra and the rebuilding of the community

3. Neh. 1:1–7:3      The return of Nehemiah and the rebuilding of the wall

4. Neh. 7:4–13:31      The return of additional exiles and the rebuilding of the community

The Return and the Rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra 1:1-6:22)

In 538 BC, Cyrus, king of Persia, decreed that the temple in Jerusalem should be rebuilt and that exiled Jews should return to Jerusalem to rebuild it. Cyrus made it clear in his decree that God appointed him to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. In fact, this temple could only be rebuilt through divine authorization, just as it had earlier been destroyed by the will of God.

From among the exiles, 42,360 returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of King David and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Ezra 2:64). Although some leaders within the Jewish community returned, most of the people who returned were ordinary, common people, underscoring the fact that all the people of God played an essential role in the task God had laid before them. The exiles who returned built the altar first, so that burnt offerings could begin even before the reconstruction of the temple was begun. When the temple was begun, it was constructed on the same site as Solomon's temple, but it lacked the glory of the earlier structure. Those who had seen Solomon’s temple wept aloud when they saw the foundations of the reconstructed one.

The rebuilding work did not go smoothly. Prior to the return of the exiles, other people groups had been resettled in Samaria. They had been taught the worship of Israel’s God, but never fully gave up their own gods. These Samaritans originally wanted to help rebuild the temple, but Zerubbabel refused, knowing that the worship of God would not remain pure if the Samaritans were allowed to be a part of it. When they were turned away, the Samaritans retaliated by trying to stop the work altogether. But all they accomplished was getting Darius’ attention and his commitment to increased diligence in finishing the work.

Ezra’s Return and the Rebuilding of the Community (Ezra 7:1–10:44)

After the temple was rebuilt, Ezra the priest returned to Jerusalem by the decree of King Artaxerxes to rebuild the community. Ezra came as a teacher of God’s law. He brought with him gifts of gold and silver consecrated to the Lord for service in the temple. These articles of gold and silver were considered holy to the Lord, set apart from the profane things of the world, and dedicated to the worship of the Lord in his temple. After Ezra dedicated the articles of gold and silver for service in the temple, he turned his attention to the community. It was vital for the community to also remain set apart, holy to the Lord, just like the articles in the temple. But Ezra found that they had not done so. In fact, they were intermarrying with the neighboring peoples. Ezra called them to account for their sin. The people confessed. And Ezra led them in setting aside their foreign wives and rededicating themselves to holiness before God.

Nehemiah’s Return and the Rebuilding of the Wall (Neh. 1:1–7:3)

The next major section is the return of Nehemiah and the rebuilding of the wall. Nehemiah, the cupbearer to the king, had unparalleled access to King Artaxerxes. When the opportunity arose, Nehemiah prayed to the Lord for success and made a bold request of Artaxerxes that he allow Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the wall. Artaxerxes granted his wish. When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, he asked how the exiles were faring. The answer he received troubled him. He learned that the exiles were in great trouble and disgrace. They were exposed to multiple dangers because the wall of Jerusalem was broken down, and the gates were burned with fire. It was such a danger that they resorted to having half the men work while the other half stood guard. Eventually, however, the wall was completed.

More Return and the Rebuilding of the Community (Neh. 7:4–13:31)

Later, additional exiles returned, and Nehemiah could focus on rebuilding the community. After the wall was completed, the city was large and spacious, but there were few inhabitants. Nehemiah examined the list of people who returned and registered them. Most of these people had settled in towns other than Jerusalem. After they were registered, we read in Nehemiah 11 that one out of every ten were asked to come and settle in the city of Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah also focused on a rededication to the law of God. In Nehemiah 7–10, Ezra read the Law to the people. They confessed their sins and made a binding agreement to serve the Lord and not to neglect the house of their God. With the rebuilding of the temple, the reestablishment of the community in Jerusalem, and the strengthening of that community with the rebuilding of the walls, the exile of God’s people was finally over. Through all of this, the hope remained that one day the Christ would come. Out of this newly reestablished community, that hope would later be realized in the birth of Jesus.

Ruth

The story of Ruth begins with pain and heartbreak. A famine in the land of Israel forced Naomi’s family to move to Moab, where Naomi’s husband and two sons died. Naomi, empty and bitter, returned to Israel and encouraged her two daughters-in-law, who were also widows, to find new husbands in Moab. But the story also abounds with grace and hope. Ruth, one of Naomi’s daughters-in-law, would not leave her. Rather, she claimed Naomi’s land as her land and Naomi’s God as her God. Only God’s grace could have brought this about. Amazingly, God showed his grace to a Gentile, anticipating a time in the New Testament when God would greatly expand his kingdom to the Gentiles.

When Naomi and Ruth returned to Bethlehem in Israel, they were destitute. Their only means of survival was to glean the grain left in farmer’s fields after they were harvested. But God, in his providence, cared for Naomi and Ruth in the form of Boaz, their Kinsman-Redeemer. As the Kinsman-Redeemer, Boaz provided for Naomi and Ruth, ultimately marrying Ruth, and producing a son through her. Naomi had gone from bitterness and emptiness to a life filled with hope and joy because of a Moabite daughter-in-law and a Kinsman-Redeemer (De Graaf, Volume II, 60).

But the story is not finished. The son born to Boaz and Ruth was a special child who grew up to become the father of Jesse and the grandfather of David, the king. David may have had a Moabite ancestor, but the story of Ruth shows that Ruth was a true Israelite despite her Moabite blood. And David could reign as a true Israelite and legitimate king of Israel. Not only was Ruth a great-grandmother of King David, but she was also an ancestor to an even greater king: Jesus Christ. What a great blessing for Ruth, a Gentile, to not only be included in the covenant of grace but to play such a pivotal role in the history of redemption that she should be included in the very line of our Savior himself.

Esther

The book of Esther helped to establish Purim as an important Jewish feast, celebrating how God sovereignly cared for his people and delivered them from severe oppression and threat of death. In the beginning chapters, two things occurred simultaneously. Esther was elevated to the position of queen after Vashti, the prior queen, incurred the wrath of King Xerxes. At the same time, Mordecai, Esther’s cousin, was coming into increasing conflict with Haman, a man who was also rising in stature within the kingdom of Xerxes. When Mordecai refused to bow down to Haman, Haman was so incensed that he determined to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the kingdom. But God had other plans. Even before Haman set about to destroy the Jews, God had already set their deliverance in motion by establishing Esther as queen.

The animosity that Haman felt toward Mordecai had a long history. Haman was an Amalekite, a descendent of Agag, king of the Amalekites during Saul’s kingship many years before (Dockery 304). Mordecai was a descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. In 1 Samuel 15, we learn that Saul was supposed to utterly destroy the Amalekites and failed to do so; and this failure brought consequences that remained for centuries. The Amalekites remained mortal enemies of Israel. The animosity remained in the lives of Haman and Mordecai, the descendants of Kish and Agag. Mordecai would never bow down to an Amalekite, and Haman would never allow a Jew to show such disrespect to him. Such animosity expresses a wider conflict between the citizens of God’s kingdom and those who are outside of God’s kingdom. As the story progressed, Haman moved ever closer to realizing his plan to destroy the Jews, but just when he was ready to strike, Esther revealed that she was a Jew, and Haman’s fortunes turned. God delivered his people and gave them victory over Haman. The decrees that Haman made in the name of the king were counteracted with decrees that Mordecai made in the name of the king. God exalted Mordecai and saved his people.

The book of Esther shows a sovereign God, who will accomplish all things according to his purpose. It assures God’s people that God is faithful to his promises, and he will provide for and save his people. Ultimately, this points to God’s deliverance through Jesus Christ.

Application

Proper application of the historical books to our lives hinges on the ability to see the work of Jesus Christ in and through these stories. Throughout the Old Testament, God worked out his redemptive plan that culminated in Jesus Christ by working through the lives and circumstances of his people. We saw in the life of Ruth that God’s plan of redemption included Gentiles even in the Old Testament. We also saw how God worked in the lives of Ruth and Boaz to bring about the line of David, from whom the Christ would be born.

In the book of Esther, we saw how God maintained his sovereignty in the lives of Ruth and Mordecai, even in the most trying of circumstances. And we can be assured that God maintains that same control in the lives of all his people, even today. God is still working out his redemptive plan for the world, and if we want to understand how that applies in our lives, all we need do is turn to how he worked it out in the lives that are illustrated in his Word.

In our study of the historical books, we also saw God calling his people to faithful living. We saw many examples of faithfulness in the lives of Ruth, Boaz, Mordecai, and Esther. We saw an example of faithfulness on the part of the entire people of Israel when the people of Israel conquered Jericho by simply following God’s instructions faithfully. But we also saw examples of failure on the part of God’s people to remain faithful. In the book of Judges, the people of Israel failed repeatedly. Even the judges themselves were, at times, poor examples of faithfulness. In the books of Kings and Chronicles, we saw how God demanded faithful kings to lead his people and the consequences when the kings proved unfaithful. We saw that Ezra and Nehemiah led the people in their return to faithfulness. Ezra reconstituted the community to be distinguished not by geographical or political boundaries, but in their adherence to the law. We, too, must find our identity not in outward circumstances but in our identification with Christ, who came as the fulfillment of the law. In all these stories, God remained consistent in his requirement of faithfulness on the part of his people, a requirement so stringent that only Jesus Christ could truly fulfill it, drawing us ever closer to our Lord and Savior.

We saw, in the books of history, how God was faithful to his promises. He kept his covenant with his people as it was proclaimed in Joshua 21:45: “Not one word of all the good promises that the Lord had made to the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass.” But he was also faithful in bringing punishment when punishment was warranted as the Chronicler stated at the end of his book in chapter 36 when he described how God sent messengers again and again to warn his people of the consequences of their unfaithfulness. But in the end, he brought about all the consequences he promised at the hands of the king of Babylon. God remains faithful to his covenant today. His promises still stand and will be carried out.

In the books of history, we also saw God establishing a presence among his people in the building of the temple. Today, we can see his continued presence among his people today through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. We saw in the rebuilding of the temple in Ezra and Nehemiah, the anticipation of Christ’s presence among his people, and how that anticipated an even greater hope of the presence of the Lord in the new heavens and the new earth.

3

Poetry and Wisdom Literature

In Psalm 42:1-2, David expressed the yearnings of his heart in these words: “As the dear pants for flowing streams, so pants my soul for you, O God. My soul thirsts for God for the living God. When shall I come and appear before God?” In this example, and many others, David used language in a particular way to describe the intensity of his experience and to communicate that intensity in a way that focused his words, leaving a maximum impact on the reader. As we shall see in this chapter, David was not the only writer to use language in such a focused and powerful way. In this chapter, we will focus on the poetry and wisdom literature found in the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon.

Background

It is difficult to draw hard and fast lines between poetry and wisdom literature. Some distinctions can be made, which we will discuss in this chapter, but we must not forget that much of Hebrew poetry can also function as wisdom literature. As you read this chapter, you should get a sense of the distinctions between the two but also of the many similarities between them.

Genre

As we did in previous chapters, we will begin examining the books of poetry and wisdom literature by looking at the genres used in writing them. Obviously, the genre of poetry plays a large role. We will spend considerable time discussing it. The genre of wisdom literature will also receive proportional treatment. To a lesser degree, historical narrative plays a role in this section of the Old Testament. We turn first to poetry.

Poetry

In modern times, poetry has become increasingly difficult to describe. Some modern poetry rhymes; other modern poetry does not. Some modern poetry follows a rhythmic pattern; other modern poetry does not. With modern poetry, it is difficult to list any single characteristic that is true of all poetry. Hebrew poetry is a bit easier to describe. While not all Hebrew poetry is exactly alike, it does have characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of Hebrew literature.

General Characteristics

Hebrew poetry is concise. It packs a maximum amount of meaning in as few words as possible, intensifying the impact of the words that are used. Sometimes this conciseness is hard to translate. For example, Psalm 23:1 says, “The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want.” The original Hebrew communicates Psalm 23:1 in a mere four words.

One of the reasons Hebrew poets could write in such a concise manner is that they made liberal use of imagery. Going back to Psalm 23:1, we see that David used the image of a shepherd to communicate the nature of the relationship between himself and the Lord. David’s understanding of the relationship between a shepherd and his sheep now informs our understanding of the relationship between the Lord and his people.

Structures

Probably the most striking structure of Hebrew poetry is parallelism, which is the “close coordination or affiliation of one line, or verse, of poetry with another, (Pratt 745), as in this example from Psalm 57:5, “Be exalted, O God, above the heavens! Let your glory be over all the earth!” In parallelism, two or more versets (a short verse or portion of a verse) interact with each other in subtle ways. Three main types of parallelism are synonymous, antithetical, and synthetic parallelism.

Synonymous parallelism uses two or more versets to express essentially the same idea. It is the most common form of parallelism in the Old Testament. Here is an example from Proverbs 19:29, “Condemnation is ready for scoffers, and beatings for the backs of fools.” The second verset is essentially a restatement of the first. But even here, it is important to be aware that the second verset often develops the idea of the first. In our example, the penalties mentioned in the first verset are further defined as beatings in the second verset. And the scoffers in the first verset are further identified as fools in the second verset.

Antithetical parallelism expresses contrasting ideas in two or more versets. Here is an example from Proverbs 12:13: “An evil man is ensnared by the transgression of his lips, but the righteous escapes trouble.” The consequences that an evil man faces for his words are contrasted with what happens in the life of a righteous man.

Synthetic parallelism takes the idea in the first verset and completes or builds upon it in the second. Here is an example from Psalm 89:8: “O Lord God of hosts, who is mighty as you are, O Lord, with your faithfulness all around you?” The second verset adds the idea that our mighty God is also faithful.

In addition to parallelism, other rhythmic structures find their way into Hebrew poetry. At times, Hebrew poetry will use structures, like chiasmus and inclusio, that are also found in Hebrew narrative. Chiasmus occurs when two or more clauses are placed in an inverted parallel structure, as in this example from Proverbs 3:16, “Long life is in her right hand; in her left hand are riches and honor.” Inclusio is an envelope structure that creates brackets around a section of text by placing similar material at the beginning and end of the section. Psalm 8 uses inclusio when it repeats the same sentence in its first and last verses.

Another way of structuring Hebrew poetry is by creating an acrostic, which is simply a poem that begins each new line with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Probably the most famous and extensive acrostic is Psalm 119. The first eight verses begin with the letter Aleph. The second set of 8 verses begins with the letter Beth, and so on. Other acrostics can be found in Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 3, and many other places.

Rhythmic Patterns

Using the structure of a poem was one way that Hebrew writers provided rhythm for the poem. Another way was to arrange the sounds of the words in rhythmic patterns. This could be done in several ways. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in a rhythmic pattern. Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds. Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of two or more words in succession. Since these rhythmic patterns are tied to the actual sounds of Hebrew letters and words, most of them are lost when Hebrew poetry is translated into another language. However, they are present in the original text.

Figures of Speech

Figures of speech are present in Hebrew poetry. Hebrew writers used figures of speech to communicate one thing while saying another. Although they used these techniques in prose as well as poetry, they relied more heavily on them in poetry. Figures of speech can take on many forms. Below are some of the more heavily used figures of speech found in Hebrew poetry.

Hyperbole is a “conscious exaggeration for the sake of effect” (Ryken Sweeter than Honey 50). Symbolism uses symbols to represent something else, for example, the symbol of a horn is often used to represent strength and power. A metaphor is an implied comparison between two objects of ideas. For example, “The Lord is my shepherd” is a metaphor that compares the Lord to a shepherd. A simile compares two objects or ideas using the words “like” or “as.” Other forms of comparison are metonymy, which uses a single object to represent something to which it is related.; and synecdoche, which uses a single part of something to represent the whole (Ryken Sweeter than Honey 58). Sarcasm is insincerely saying something while meaning the opposite. And irony is an indirect contradiction between what is said and what is meant.

This list is not exhaustive, but it will give you a good idea of what to look for and will serve as a good reminder to be alert for the use of figures of speech, especially in Hebrew poetry. More importantly, it will remind you to take into consideration figures of speech when forming your interpretation of a specific text. The many and varied poetic techniques used by Hebrew authors resulted in a form of poetry that was especially effective in expressing the full range of human emotion. Hebrew authors expressed joy and pain, praise and lament, love and hatred, and many other emotions. In doing so, they challenge all readers of their poetry to feel these emotions themselves.

Poetic Forms

Hebrew authors had a variety of forms from which to choose. These forms can be distinguished by the purposes for which they were written. Narrative poetry was written in order to describe events that took place within the history of God’s people. Two examples can be found in Psalms 105 and 106. Psalm 105 is a narrative poem that describes the gracious acts of God toward his people from the time of the patriarchs to the entry of God’s people into the Promised Land. Psalm 106 is also a narrative poem. It recounts a period like the one recounted in Psalm 105 but focuses on the failures of the people of Israel within that time period. Didactic Poetry is poetry that is intended to teach. Later in this chapter, we will see that much wisdom literature is written as poetry but also serves a didactic function.

Lyric poetry portrays the feelings of an individual or group. The Psalms contain numerous examples of lyric poetry. King David was well-known for his lyric poems, but other authors of the Psalms also wrote lyric poems. For example, the Sons of Korah wrote Psalm 84, which expresses these feelings: “My soul longs, yes, faints for the courts of the Lord; my heart and flesh sing for joy to the living God.” Lyric poems could express the full range of human emotions. In some, the author cried out in joy to the Lord. In others, the authors composed laments, expressing their deep sorrow. Psalmist would also express thanksgiving that a particular lament sung previously was heard by the Lord and acted upon. Still others, called Imprecatory Psalms, expressed deep-seated desires of the author for God to avenge the wrongs of the evildoer.

Hortatory poetry urges action. Sometimes this can be a request for the Lord to act on his peoples’ behalf. Other times it is an exhortation to Israel to act as faithful children of God. Psalm 128 is a hortatory poem that encourages all God’s people to fear the Lord and walk in his ways.

The above paragraphs are but a brief introduction to the depth and variety of Hebrew poetry. John Calvin was right when he called the book of Psalms, “An anatomy of all the parts of the soul, for,” he said, “there is not an emotion of which anyone can be conscious that is not here represented as in a mirror” (Calvin xxxvii).

Wisdom Literature

Much of the wisdom literature in the Old Testament comes to us in the form of poetry, which we have already discussed. So, we will limit our comments to other distinctive elements of wisdom literature. Wisdom literature can be distinguished from other biblical literature by its focus on wisdom, or insight into the created order, rather than on redemptive history. The attention of the wisdom writers was on the created order as they could observe it in their day. They did not spend as much time reflecting on God’s redemptive plan working itself out in the history of Israel. This does not mean that they left God out of the picture. For the biblical writer, true wisdom begins with the fear of the Lord, because without the fear of the Lord, one cannot gain insight into the Lord’s creation.

The vocabulary used by the wisdom writers also sets this form of biblical literature apart from the rest. In particular, the word “wisdom” and its synonyms, such as “understanding” and “insight” appear more frequently in these books than in others. Wisdom writers also differed from other biblical writers in that they relied mainly on observations of common life rather than on supernatural visions or other forms of inspiration to give them the subject matter for their writings. To be sure, the Holy Spirit just as actively inspired them as he did any of the other biblical writers, but the Spirit inspired them through very ordinary means.

Those are some of the distinguishing characteristics of wisdom literature. We can now move on to discuss two types of wisdom literature: didactic wisdom and reflective (or discursive) wisdom (see Pratt 746-7). As its name implies, didactic literature was intended to teach wisdom to others, particularly within the context of the family. The most common form of didactic wisdom literature is the proverb. Proverbs were designed to be easily memorized and practical. They were often provocative, intending to make a distinct impression on the learner in a brief sentence or two. But as practical as didactic literature was, it also presented its observations of life in an ideal context. To understand some of the proverbs, we must look beyond the sinful world of what is to the ideal world of what should be. For example, Proverbs 21:17 says, “Whoever loves pleasure will be a poor man; he who loves wine and oil will not be rich” But don’t we all know rich people who love pleasure, who love wine and oil? However, the proverb sets before us an ideal in which mere desire for pleasure does not produce profitable results. And in setting this ideal before us, it calls us to live our lives striving for this ideal, knowing that in the end, striving for pleasure is an empty activity.

A second form of wisdom literature is reflective literature. It is prevalent in books like Job and Ecclesiastes. While accepting the ideals set forth in didactic literature, it seeks greater insight into how these ideals can function in a less-than-ideal world. The authors of this literature reflect on life as they experience it and discover greater insight into how their understanding of life can be resolved with their understanding of the ideal.

Historical Narrative

We should also take a brief look at historical narrative. Most of the poetry and wisdom literature found in the Old Testament is written in lyric form. However, some sections of Job and Ecclesiastes are written in prose form as historical narrative. Like historical narrative in other portions of Scripture, the sections of historical narrative that appear in the wisdom literature should be considered historically accurate. Historical narrative recounts events that actually happened. So, when we come to sections of historical narrative, like the first two chapters in the book of Job, we should take them as they are presented to us: as events that actually occurred in history.

When the Holy Spirit inspired the authors of the Old Testament to write, he inspired some to recount the history of Israel and others to set forth the laws of God. But he also inspired some to show us their hearts through poetry. In the poetry and wisdom literature handed down to us in the pages of Scripture, we have a glimpse into the hearts of its authors, and if we are honest with ourselves, our encounter with these powerful words will give us a glimpse into our own hearts as well.

Authors

In addition to discussing the genres used in poetry and wisdom literature, we can also discuss the authors who wrote it. After that, we will examine the historical settings in which the books were written. We will then move to a discussion of the original audiences of these books and the traditional uses of these books by believers throughout history. Let’s begin with a discussion of the authors.

David is perhaps the best-known author of Old Testament poetry, particularly the Psalms. We learn much about his life through the narratives in 1 Samuel. These narratives actually introduce him two times. One narrative introduces David as the warrior who killed Goliath. Another introduces him as a musician hired to play soothing music for Saul. These two introductions highlight the two focuses of David’s life. David’s early life was spent as a shepherd. His ability as a musician and even many of the themes he used to compose his songs hearken back to the shepherd days of his youth. Many of his psalms have a pastoral theme and paint an ideal picture of David’s Lord functioning as a shepherd, caring for his sheep. But David was also a warrior. In his first battle with Goliath, he relied on skills he learned as a shepherd. But later, his warrior skills matured and advanced, so that he became a skillful strategist and handler of other weapons. David also wrote poetry that explored themes from battle. For David, the Lord not only could be compared to a shepherd taking care of his sheep, but he could also be compared to a mighty king fighting on behalf of his people.

While David is considered to have written many of the Psalms, other authors also contributed to the collection. Asaph, the sons of Korah, Solomon, Jeduthun, Heman, Etan, and Moses all contributed to the psalter. Other Psalms, knowns as the “orphan psalms,” are not attributed to any specific author.

David’s son, Solomon, was perhaps best known for his wisdom, so it is understandable that his contribution to the canon of Scripture is focused on wisdom literature. Just how extensive his contribution was, is still debated. We know that Solomon made significant contributions to the book of Proverbs. His direct contributions to Proverbs are found in 10:1–22:16 and 25:1–29:27. Other contributors to Proverbs included Augur, Lemuel, the “wise men,” who were probably connected to Solomon’s court in some way, and also men from Hezekiah’s day who compiled the additional proverbs of Solomon found in chapters 25 through 27. (Knowles 249)

Solomon’s authorship of Ecclesiastes is not as well documented as his authorship of Proverbs. He is traditionally considered to be the author of Ecclesiastes, but his name is not found in the book itself. From the descriptions in 1:1, we learn that the author was a king in Jerusalem and a son, or descendant, of David, so it could have been Solomon, even though we cannot definitively say that it was. Whether or not Solomon wrote the book, it is clear that he deeply influenced the creation of Israel’s wisdom literature, including the book of Ecclesiastes.

A similar problem exists with the Song of Solomon. The traditional view among Jews and Christians is that Solomon wrote the entire book, but it is impossible to know for sure. It could have been simply written for Solomon instead of by him (Sproul 935). If Solomon did write the book, it is possible that he wrote it later in his life after he had already increased his wives and harem to a total of 1,000, and when a country girl rejected his proposal of marriage in favor of her true love, a male shepherd. If this is the case, then Solomon could have written this book as a reflection on the type of love he longed for, but no longer knew.

Finally, we should say a few words about the author of the book of Job. We do not know the name of this author, but from the text of the book, we can deduce a few things about him. We know that he was an Israelite because he called God by his covenant name, Yahweh. He likely wrote the book some time during or after the reign of Solomon and before the exile, or in other words sometime between 970 B.C. and 586 B.C. Because the book of Job is set approximately 1,000 years earlier, the author probably used older source material to compile the story of Job in written form (Sproul 690)

Historical Settings

Some of the books in the poetry and wisdom literature of the Old Testament were compiled over an extended length of time, while others were written as a single composition over a shorter period of time. Since the historical settings vary greatly from book to book, we will discuss each book separately in turn.

The setting of Job takes place around the time of the patriarchs, most likely before God made a covenant with Abraham. Like Abraham, Job functioned as a patriarch, even making offerings for his family. Job also lived to a very old age, enjoying the restoration of his wealth and family for an additional 140 years after his suffering. (Longman and Dillard 226)

Unlike the book of Job, the psalms were written over a period of approximately 1,000 years, from the time of Moses through the period of the exile, or roughly from 1440 B.C. to 400 B.C. (Pratt 803). The historical background, then, is essentially the entire history of Old Testament Israel. Through Israel’s history, the Psalms functioned as the Israelites’ prayer book to worship their covenant God. As the collection was formed, psalms were continually added, and some were updated. When psalms were added, they were not simply attached to the end of the collection but rather interspersed throughout. The reason for their unique placement within the book of Psalms is unknown. Psalms were added as individual psalms and also in groups. Some were grouped according to author, like the Psalms of the Sons of Korah found in Psalms 42 through 49; or the songs of Asaph, which are Psalms 50, and 73 through 83. Others were grouped according to function, like the Psalms of Ascent, which appear as Psalms 120 through 134. Some psalms were given titles. It is not certain when these titles were added or whether titles should be considered part of the inspired text. However, at the very least we can say that they represent very early tradition and can be generally considered reliable. (Longman Psalms 42-5)

Proverbs is similar to Psalms in that it was written by different authors at various times over a long time period. The writing and compilation began during Solomon’s reign, at approximately 960 B.C. and continued through the reign of Hezekiah, at approximately 686 B.C. Proverbs was intended to be used as a resource for teaching wisdom to young people. We can presume the author intended Proverbs to be used in godly homes. Proverbs refers numerous times to a father imparting wisdom to his son. The book also refers to the mother as a teacher of the law and of Solomon’s proverbs. It is likely that this wisdom was intended primarily for the royal family, but it would also have been appropriately used by all families within Israel (Pratt 968).

Ecclesiastes is a single composition. It was likely written by Solomon or someone in the royal court. The first verse identifies the author as a “son of David, king in Jerusalem.” If this son of David was Solomon, Ecclesiastes would have been composed somewhere around 930 B.C. However, it is possible that another of David’s descendants could have composed the book anytime up to the beginning of the Babylonian captivity in 586 B.C. (Pratt 1032). Whenever Ecclesiastes was written, we know that the nation of Israel was experiencing hardship, death, injustice, pagan tyranny, and suffering at the hands of rulers. Ecclesiastes was written during a dark time in the history of Israel.

The Song of Solomon is most directly connected to the reign of Solomon. It was most likely written in Judah or Jerusalem sometime between 960 B.C. to 931 B.C., during or slightly after Solomon’s reign (Pratt 1049). The book celebrates romantic love during that period in Israel’s history and throughout the ages.

In a sense, the historical setting of Old Testament poetry and wisdom literature emphasizes its timeless character. The specific historical context for much of this literature might be imprecise, but the emotions represented, and the relationship described between God and his people, remains as relevant today as it has ever been. These songs, poems, and narratives were written from the heart, and they still strike a chord in the hearts of God’s people today.

Original Audiences

The original audience for poetry and wisdom literature was the nation of Israel. All the people of God in the Old Testament benefited from this literature (Pratt 968). Parents could use it to teach their children wisdom. Children could turn to this literature as they sought to navigate the course of their lives. Everyone in Israel could use the Psalms for family and corporate worship. Another group that benefited from this literature was the court of the king. Kings were commanded to heed the words of Scripture (Deut. 17:18-20). Their sons were being groomed to one day hold high office in the kingdom. They needed to learn biblical wisdom in order to rule well.

Later, when Judah was taken into exile in Babylon, the exiled community turned to the poetry of the Psalms to express their deep emotions at being torn from the Promised Land. Daniel, for example, cried out to the Lord, “open your eyes and see our desolations, and the city that is called by your name” (Dan. 9:18). Other exiles cried out, “By the waters of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, when we remembered Zion” (Ps. 137:1). It is likely that they would also have turned to Psalms like Psalm 85, which says in verses 4-5, “Restore us again, O God of our salvation, and put away your indignation toward us! Will you be angry with us forever? Will you prolong your anger to all generations?”

Traditional Uses

Probably the most common use of the psalms has been in the corporate worship of God. The book of Psalms was the songbook for worship in Old Testament Israel. Some psalms make direct reference to the psalmist as a worshiper. But even if they do not, all the psalms provide the worshiper with a wide range of responses to all circumstances of life, allowing us to use the Psalms in our worship no matter our current situation in life. (Longman Psalms 46-7)

Some psalms were used by believers to prepare their hearts for worship. For example, Psalms 120 through 134 were composed as Psalms of Ascent and intended to be sung as the worshiper ascended to the Temple Mount for worship (Longman Psalms 46-7). These psalms are still used as believers prepare to worship their God. Other psalms, while not Psalms of Ascent, speak of the psalmist’s desire for worship. For example, Psalm 27:4 states, “One thing have I asked of the Lord, that will I seek after; that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life, to gaze upon the beauty of the Lord and to inquire in his temple”

Besides using the psalms for worship, believers have also traditionally used poetry and wisdom literature to teach and apply biblical wisdom in order to live faithfully before God. Traditionally, wisdom literature has been a primary resource for teaching biblical wisdom. The book of Proverbs helps us to apply biblical wisdom to our lives and to teach it to our children. It tells us that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, showing us that any application of biblical wisdom in our lives must begin with a proper relationship to the Lord. The book of Ecclesiastes helps establish the foundation for teaching wisdom, showing us how to strike a balance between seeking an ideal world and living in a fallen one. It shows believers how to remain faithful to God in whatever circumstances God places them. Similarly, Job teaches us how to remain faithful to God even when we personally are suffering. In the Song of Solomon, we are given an example of biblical wisdom being applied in a loving marriage.

Content

We continue our discussion of poetry and wisdom literature, focusing on the content of the books. We will begin with the Psalms, otherwise known as the hymnbook of ancient Israel.

Psalms

Traditionally, the Psalms have been divided into the following five books, each ending in a doxology:

Book 1: Psalm 1–41

Book 2: Psalm 42–72

Book 3: Psalm 73–89

Book 4: Psalm 90–106

Book 5: Psalm 107–150

In some ways, the division of the Psalms into five books mirrors the division of the Law of Moses into the five books of the Pentateuch. However, the Psalms can also be divided according to their types. In this division, we end up with seven groups (see Pratt 804-5):

1. Hymns of Praise

2. Laments

3. Thanksgiving Psalms

4. Psalms of Confidence

5. Psalms of Remembrance

6. Kingship Psalms

7. Wisdom Psalms

Because individual psalms do not necessarily share the same context as psalms preceding and following them, it is more helpful to study a psalm in terms of its connection to similarly classified psalms. When studying the psalms in this way, it is possible to learn, for example, how a specific lament is similar to and different than laments in general. In our summary of the Psalms, we will describe them according to the seven identified types.

Hymns of Praise

Hymns of Praise are what we normally think of when we think of the book of Psalms. In fact, the Hebrew name for the book of Psalms is Tehillim, which is translated, “praises” (Longman Psalms 45). Hymns of Praise appear through the book of Psalms, but they appear with greater frequency toward the end, culminating in the final five songs in Psalms 146–150, which are known as the Great Doxology. (Sproul 866)

Hymns of Praise often include the reasons for giving praise, such as giving praise because of who God is as the King of Israel, or because of what he has done, like winning the victory over his enemies. Psalmists also praised God on special occasions, like a royal wedding, or in special places, like Zion, which was the place of God’s special presence. Psalmists also used Hymns of Praise to explore the many ways to give praise to the Lord. Psalmists extolled readers to shout, to lift up their hands, to praise the Lord with trumpets, cymbals, and numerous other instruments. They extolled the readers to praise the Lord continually, to praise him to the next generation, to praise him from the highest heights and from the depths of the sea. The psalmists called all creation to use every means possible, in every place possible to praise the Lord.

Psalm 150 is a fitting example of a Hymn of Praise:

Praise the Lord!

Praise God in his sanctuary;
praise him in his mighty heavens!

Praise him for his mighty deeds;
praise him according to his excellent greatness!

Praise him with trumpet sound;
praise him with the lute and harp!

Praise him with tambourine and dance;
praise him with the strings and pipe!

Praise him with sounding cymbals;
praise him with loud clashing cymbals!

Let everything that has breath praise the Lord!

Praise the Lord!

Laments

Laments are cries from the heart of the psalmist to his God. In the lament, the psalmist is reacting to the trouble that has come as a result of an enemy’s acts, the psalmist’s sin, or from God himself. Laments express the psalmist’s spiritual disorientation, distress, and pain and appeal to the character of God, asking him to rise up and act. The psalmist does not necessarily long to be delivered from his pain as much as he longs to find a positive orientation to God again.

Laments have a distinct structure of seven elements (see Longman Psalms 27). These elements can all be found in laments, but very few laments contain all seven elements in a single psalm. The seven elements are:

1. An invocation

2. A plea to God for help

3. Complaints

4. A confession of sin or an assertion of innocence

5. An imprecation, or the pronouncement of a curse on his enemies

6. An expression of confidence in God’s response

7. A hymn or blessing

The structure shows that a lament will often turn from sorrow in the beginning of the psalm, to joy and praise at the end. In structuring laments this way, psalmists expressed their confidence that God would hear their lament and act on their behalf. A good example of a lament is found in Psalm 28. Here are some excerpts from that psalm:

To you, O Lord, I call;
my rock, be not deaf to me...

... Hear the voice of my pleas for mercy,
when I cry to you for help...

... Do not drag me off with the wicked,
with the workers of evil...

... Give to them according to their work
and according to the evil of their deeds…

... Blessed be the Lord!

For he has heard the voice of my pleas for mercy.

The Lord is my strength and my shield;
in him my heart trusts, and I am helped.

my heart exults
and with my song I give thanks to him...

Thanksgiving Psalms

Thanksgiving Psalms were often related to a psalmist’s song of lament. After God acted on the lament of a psalmist, the psalmist would then sing a song thanking God for delivering him from his trouble. Some Thanksgiving Psalms included flashbacks to the trouble in their past. But then they would quickly turn to how God delivered them. The psalmists used Thanksgiving Psalms to testify to God’s power and his goodness and to encourage others to join in praising the name of the Lord. Psalm 18 is an example of a Thanksgiving Psalm. Here are some excerpts:

I love you, O Lord, my strength....

...I call upon the Lord, who is worthy to be praised,
and I am saved from my enemies...

...The Lord lives, and blessed by my rock,
and exalted be the God of my salvation...

We have examined the three main types of psalms: the Hymns of Praise, Laments, and Thanksgiving Psalms. These three main types have sometimes been referred to as hymns of orientation, disorientation, and reorientation (Longman Psalms 143). This is a helpful description since it focuses our attention on the relationship between the psalmist and the Lord. In the hymns of praise, the psalmist’s relationship with the Lord is in the proper orientation. The laments show the psalmist as disoriented in his relationship to the Lord. And the thanksgiving psalms show the psalmist giving thanks that his relationship to the Lord is again properly oriented.

Psalms of Confidence

In addition to the Hymns of Praise, Laments, and Thanksgiving Psalms, several other types are present with the 150 psalms, albeit to a lesser extent. We will spend a short time discussing four of these lesser types, beginning with the Psalms of Confidence, which describe nine of the psalms found in the book of Psalms. Psalmists used Psalms of Confidence to express their trust that the Lord would be their protector. This reflects the psalmist’s understanding of God as the Great King, who pledged to defend his servants if they were threatened. Other psalms also express this confidence, but in these psalms, confidence is the primary emphasis. The Psalms of Confidence frequently used metaphors to describe how God provided a refuge for his people. For example, these psalms would compare God to a mother hen, who shelters her young under her wings. Or they would compare God to a rock that stands unmoved against any force. Or they would compare God to a mighty fortress that could withstand the attacks of any enemy.

Psalm 125 is a Psalm of Confidence. It begins this way:

Those who trust in the Lord are like Mount Zion,
which cannot be moved, but abides forever.

As the mountains surround Jerusalem,
so the Lord surrounds his people
from this time forth and forevermore.

Psalms of Remembrance

Psalms of Remembrance recount the redemptive acts of the Lord that have occurred in the past. Like Songs of Confidence, the defining feature of these psalms can be found in other psalms, but remembering the redemptive acts of the Lord is the primary emphasis of these psalms. Songs of Remembrance highlight the covenantal relationship between God and his people. The psalmist remembers God’s covenantal acts, which are not abstract concepts, but acts within the redemptive history of God’s people. Psalm 105:5-7 provide a good example of a Song of Remembrance:

Remember the wonders he has done,
his miracles, and the judgments he pronounced,

O descendants of Abraham his servant,

O sons of Jacob, his chosen ones.

He is the Lord our God;
his judgments are in all the earth.

Kingship Psalms

As the name implies, Kingship Psalms had a strong connection to Israelite kings. However, this connection can be seen in two ways. Sometimes the psalms extolled God as king. At other times, the earthly ruler of Israel was extolled as king (Longman Psalms 34). When the psalmist extolled God as king, he pointed to God’s kingship not only over Israel but over the entire cosmos. He described God’s function as king in the way he fought for his people and won victories for them. When the psalmist extolled the human king of Israel, he described him as a servant in the context of the covenant. God was the Great King, while the human king of Israel was his vassal king. As a vassal king, the human king of Israel was called to lead the people in covenant faithfulness. Psalm 21:1 provides a good example of a Kingship Psalm:

O Lord, in your strength the king rejoices,
and in your salvation how greatly he exults!

Wisdom Psalms

Wisdom Psalms celebrate the covenant relationship that God established with his people by means of his grace. They make the point that true wisdom consists of understanding the relationship of grace that God established and in living out that relationship daily. Wisdom Psalms focus on the law as a guide for maintaining wisdom in the covenant relationship. These songs make distinctions between the wise who follow the law and the foolish who do not. Psalm 1 provides an example of a Wisdom Song. Here are excerpts from verses 1, 2, and 4:

Blessed is the man
who walks not in the counsel of the wicked,
nor stands in the way of sinners,
nor sits in the seat of scoffers;
but his delight is in the law of the Lord,
an on his law he meditates day and night...

...The wicked are not so,
but are like chaff that the wind drives away.

As we have said before, John Calvin fittingly described the book of Psalms as “an anatomy of all parts of the soul” (Calvin xxxvii). The psalmists laid their souls bare before the Lord and before his people. In doing so, they express the entire range of emotions that a believer in covenant relationship with the Lord of the cosmos can experience. And they show us our God, with all his varied attributes, receiving our praise for his glory. It is a relationship that is as relevant for the believer of today as it was for the psalmists who wrote these songs so many years before.

Song of Solomon

The Song of Solomon is another example of poetry in the Old Testament. It is also called the Song of Songs, corresponding verse 1 of the song. Of all the books in the Old Testament, the Song of Solomon has the greatest disparity of interpretations, which is remarkable because the text is straightforward. Certainly, some passages make for difficult interpretation, but the main problem is not the text; it is the subject matter. At various times in church history, the idea of discussing erotic love seemed beyond the delicate sensibilities of the interpreter. And so, this love poetry has been interpreted allegorically and other ways in order to avoid embarrassing discussions and to give the book a more religious tone. But that does not make for sound interpretations. When interpreting Scripture, it is always best to accept the words of Scripture as they are presented to us. And so, we will discuss the Song of Solomon as love poetry between a country girl and a male shepherd.

There are two possible ways to read the Song of Solomon as love poetry. One way is to read it as a dialog between Solomon and one of his wives. But it is also possible to read this as a love song with three distinct characters: a country girl, the love of her youth who is a shepherd, and Solomon, who intrudes on their love in order to take the country girl as his wife (see Pratt 1049). While both interpretations are possible, we will approach this song from the three-character perspective.

The country girl was from the town of Shulam. She is described as her lover would describe her, using language that is both idealistic and erotic. And yet the language used by the male shepherd to describe her is also very concrete and specific. Listen to a description of her from 4:1-2:

Behold, you are beautiful, my love,
behold, you are beautiful!

Your eyes are doves behind your veil.

Your hair is like a flock of goats leaping down from the slopes of Gilead.

Your teeth are like a flock of shorn ewes that have come up from the washing.

all of which bear twins, and not one among them has lost its young

The male shepherd is also described through the eyes of the country girl, who is his lover. She uses erotic and idealistic language to describe him but also uses concrete and specific descriptions in her images. Here is her description of the male shepherd from 5:10-14:

My beloved is radiant and ruddy,
distinguished among ten thousand.

His head is the finest gold;
his locks are wavy
black as a raven.

His eyes are like doves
beside streams of water,
bathed in milk,
sitting beside a full pool.

His cheeks are like beds of spices
mounds of sweet-smelling herbs.

His lips are lilies
dripping liquid myrrh.

His arms are rods of gold
set with jewels.

His body is polished ivory
bedecked with sapphires....

Obviously, this description is idealistic, but the images form a concrete picture in our minds. From these descriptions, we get a clear picture of both people. The male shepherd longs for his beloved, and the country girl longs for her shepherd. But they have a problem. A third person threatens to come between them, and he is powerful enough to accomplish his purposes. In fact, he is King Solomon himself.

There are two main places in the Song of Solomon where Solomon makes an appearance. The first place comes in 3:6-11, where Solomon is described as arriving from the desert in his carriage. He has come to intrude on the relationship between the country girl and the shepherd. The second place is found in 8:11. The verse talks about Solomon owning a vineyard. But then, in the next verse, the country girl makes the point that she, too, owns a vineyard. Her vineyard is hers to give, and she does not give it to Solomon. Instead, she invites the shepherd to be with her.

The Song of Solomon is a true love poem, getting to the essence of what love is. It is a love that Solomon longs for but can no longer grasp because he has thrown his love to 700 wives and 300 concubines. The erotic love between the country girl and the shepherd is love in its simplest and purest form. And it is celebrated for its powerful simplicity in the greatest of all love songs.

Job

Job takes a unique look at the problem suffering. The traditional approach has been to ask, “If God is both good and all-powerful, why does he allow righteous people to suffer?” But Job never asked that question. Rather the book of Job explains the limits of wisdom and how a wise person needs to live within those limits. It does not seek to understand God as much as it seeks to understand how a wise person should respond to a God who allows suffering and how a wise person should counsel someone who is suffering.

The book of Job begins with a prologue in chapters 1 and 2. The prologue introduces us to the conversation in heaven between God and Satan that serves as the background to the book. The prologue also introduces us to Job and his friends. We learn the extent of Job’s suffering. We learn that God allowed Job’s suffering to test Job’s faithfulness. We learn that God singled out Job for the honor of being tested in this way. We also are introduced to Job’s friends and their intention to sympathize with Job in his sufferings.

A large portion of the book, chapters 3 through 27, consists of a dialogue between Job and his friends. In reading through the dialogue, it is quickly apparent that his friends never progressed in their arguments. They struggled to make sense of Job’s suffering at the hands of a completely sovereign, just, and good God. And they remained in that struggle throughout their dialogues with Job. Job, on the other hand, showed a deepening of his understanding as the dialogues progress from chapters 3 through 27. Early in his dialogues with his friends, Job was fond of quoting proverbs. But later, he realized that proverbs did not address his extreme situation, and he ended up crying out to God in his frustration and pain. But out of his frustration and pain, Job had a moment of insight in his final dialogue with his friends in chapter 28. In this moment of insight, Job realized that only God fully understands the path to wisdom. And that understanding of God allowed Job to come to his conclusion in 28:28, which says, “Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to turn away from evil that is understanding.”

Following Job’s interlude on wisdom, several monologues are recorded in chapters 29 through 42. Job’s monologue in chapters 29 through 31 shows that his insight on wisdom was short-lived. He continued the complaints he had before.[5] After the dialogues, Elihu finally spoke up, presenting a monologue from chapter 32 through 37. Elihu was a young man without much life experience, but he still had wisdom enough to correct some of Job’s complaints. Finally, in 38:1–42:6, we hear the Lord’s speech and Job’s response. In his speech, the Lord affirmed his power and sovereign control over all things. Job could only respond in humility and repentance. And God acknowledged Job’s repentance by blessing Job even more than before. The last several paragraphs of the book of Job form an epilogue, which, together with the prologue at the beginning of Job, establishes a frame around the book. It forcefully affirms God’s justice and goodness, bringing the story to an end.

Proverbs

The book of Proverbs is a unique book. It includes no references to redemptive history and very few references to God. But Proverbs is a deeply theological and practical book, integrating the faith of Israel by focusing on the fear of the Lord as the beginning of wisdom.

Proverbs can be divided into three parts:

1. Fatherly wisdom      1:1–9:18

2. Solomon’s proverbs      10:1–22:16; 25:1–29:27

3. Other proverbs      22:17–24:34; 30:1–31:31

Fatherly Wisdom (Prov. 1:1–9:18)

The first seven verses of Proverbs state that the purpose of the book is to impart wisdom to the simple and the wise. It names the book “the proverbs of Solomon,” indicating that Solomon played a major role in its formation. And it presents the theme of the book in verse 7, which states, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction.”

Following the preamble, the section on fatherly wisdom contains extended discourses on wisdom that take the form of lessons from a father to a son. The father focuses on showing reverence to God as the ultimate form of wisdom. In some of these discourses, wisdom also takes the form of a personified wisdom who is speaking for herself. These sections culminate in the contrast between Wisdom and Folly, in other words, the contrast between wisely showing reverence toward God, or foolishly following the gods of this world.

The Proverbs of Solomon (Prov. 10:1–22:16; 25:1–29:27)

Solomon’s proverbs appear in apparently random order and are mostly composed of short, two-line phrases. Because Solomon’s proverbs are so compact, the ideas they present have an intensity and forcefulness that is not always found in other genres. They describe the connection between righteousness and wisdom from all angles, explaining the effects of wisdom on one’s speech and deeds; the consequences of foolish living versus the effects of wise and ethical living; the relationship between wealth and wisdom; the relationship between wisdom and godly rulers; and many other areas of life.

Other Proverbs (Prov. 22:17-24:34; 30:1–31:31)

In addition to Solomon’s proverbs, other proverbs were written by a variety of other individuals and collected as The Sayings of the Wise, The Sayings of Agur, and The Sayings of Lemuel.

The Sayings of the Wise in chapter 22:17 through 24:34 are collections of proverbs by anonymous writers. These proverbs follow similar themes to the proverbs written by Solomon, but they take more diverse forms, with some sections including longer, reflective wisdom in addition to the short, didactic, proverbial wisdom.

The Sayings of Agur in chapter 30 contain reflective wisdom similar to that found in the book of Job, like these questions from 30:4:

“Who has ascended to heaven and come down?

Who has gathered the wind in his fists?

Who has wrapped up the waters in a garment?

Who has established all the ends of the earth?

What is his name, and what is his son’s name?

Surely you know!”

The Sayings of Agur also contains numerical proverbs, in which Agur states a number and then lists thematically-related items corresponding to that number.

The Sayings of Lemuel make up chapter 31, the final chapter in the book of Proverbs. These are sayings passed down to King Lemuel by his mother. They give guidance to Lemuel in his capacity as king. They also give guidance in the area of marriage, particularly as it relates to a wife of noble character.

The book of Proverbs is a rich resource for teaching wisdom to young people. As God is the source of all wisdom, young people can only attain wisdom by showing reverence to God. And the deeper we delve into the book of Proverbs, the deeper will be our reverence for God.

Ecclesiastes

The best way to understand the structure of Ecclesiastes is to consider it an autobiography of a single individual, sandwiched in between a short introduction and conclusion that was written by someone else (Greidanus, Ecclesiastes 16). The writer of the introduction and conclusion was presumably a wisdom teacher who resided in the court of the king. His role was to introduce the writer of the autobiography at the beginning of the book and to evaluate him at the end. The writer of the autobiography was given the Hebrew title Qoheleth. It is often translated as Preacher or Teacher, but a more literal translation would refer to the Qoheleth as one who assembles a group (Longman and Dillard 279-83).

The Qoheleth’s autobiography can be divided into three parts introduced by three questions (Pratt 1033-34). The first question, found in 1:3, asks, “What does man gain by all the toil at which he toils under the sun?” The answer the Qoheleth gives is that man’s labor is futile. Whatever a man does will not be remembered by those who follow. The second question, found in 3:9 asks, “What gain has the worker from his toil?” The Qoheleth's answer to this is that

“what happens to the children of man and what happens to the beasts is the same; as one dies, so dies the other. They all have the same breath, and man has no advantage over the beasts, for all is vanity. All go to one place. All are from the dust, and to dust all return.” (3:19-20)

It is an answer full of pessimism and results in the conclusion that “there is nothing better than that a man should rejoice in his work, for that is his lot” (3:22).

The third question, found in 6:8, asks, “For what advantage has the wise man over the fool?” The Qoheleth gives an equally pessimistic answer to this question. In 6:12, he states, “For who knows what is good for man while he lives the few days of his vain life, which he passes like a shadow? For who can tell man what will be after him under the sun?”

After the Qoheleth finished speaking, the unnamed writer added a conclusion in 12:9-14, where he evaluated the statements of the Qoheleth, affirming that the Qoheleth's words were not easy to accept, but still full of wisdom. The unnamed writer stated it this way in 12:11: “The words of the wise are like goads, and like nails firmly fixed are the collected sayings…” But the unnamed writer also ended the book on a positive note, turning the pessimism of the Qoheleth into a positive statement, when he said in 12:13b, “Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man.”

The wisdom literature of the Old Testament is founded on reverence for God. The book of Job showed us not so much how to understand God, as it showed us how to respond to him as he is. Proverbs showed that wisdom can only be gained by showing proper respect to God as the source of all wisdom. And Ecclesiastes showed us that life is really all about fearing God and keeping his commandments. We can only truly attain wisdom when we learn to take God as he is and to show him the reverence and fear that is due him.

Application

Traditionally, the poetry and wisdom literature of the Bible was used for worship and for instruction in wisdom. It can and should still be used in this way today. We can focus on four areas of application in particular: the worship of God, the fear of the Lord as the beginning of wisdom, the purpose of suffering, and recognizing the God of salvation.

The Worship of God

If the psalms truly are an anatomy of all parts of the soul, then their use of them in corporate worship elevates it beyond the shallow emotionalism that is found in much of what passes for worship today. The psalms help us to express ourselves in worship in ways like these:

“Bless the Lord, O my soul,
and all that is within me,
bless his holy name! (Psalm 103.1)

“Let the heavens praise your wonders O Lord,
your faithfulness in the assembly of the holy ones!

For who in the skies can be compared to the Lord?

Who among the heavenly beings is like the Lord,
a God greatly to be feared in the council of the holy ones,
and awesome above all who are around him?

O Lord God of hosts,
who is mighty as you are, O Lord,
with your faithfulness all around you?” (Psalm 89:5-8)

“Praise the Lord!

Sing to the Lord a new song,
his praise in the assembly of the godly!” (Psalm 149:1)

“Be gracious to me, O Lord, for I am languishing;
heal me, O Lord, for my bones are troubled.” (Psalm 6:3)

“For the Lord builds up Zion;
he appears in his glory;
he regards the prayer of the destitute
and does not despise their prayer.” (Psalm 102:16-17)

“O Lord my God, I cried to you for help,
and you have healed me.

O Lord, you have brought up my soul from Sheol;
you restored me to life from among those who go down to the pit.

Sing praises to the Lord, O you his saints,
and give thanks to his holy name.

For his anger is but for a moment,
and his favor is for a lifetime.

Weeping may tarry for the night,
but joy comes in the morning.” (Psalm 30:2-5)

The Fear of the Lord is the Beginning of Wisdom

The poetry and wisdom literature of the Old Testament lays special emphasis on God as the source of all wisdom. Solomon, whose name is strongly connected to wisdom literature, was only granted wisdom when he requested it from God. He acknowledged God as the source of wisdom in Proverbs 2:6, when he said, “For the Lord gives wisdom; from his mouth come knowledge and understanding.” In the book of Job, God made sure Job knew who the source of wisdom was when he asked in 38:36, “Who has put wisdom in the inward parts or given understanding to the mind?” The situation has not changed in the New Testament. James reminded his readers in James 1:5, “If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all without reproach, and it will be given him.”

Because God is the source of all wisdom, it is foolish to seek wisdom anywhere else. Rather, true wisdom can only come from fearing God and keeping his commandments. As Job said in 28:28, “Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to turn away from evil is understanding.” Or, as the Qoheleth said in Ecclesiastes 12:13b, “Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man.” Those who do not fear and obey God are wicked. Though they may prosper for a time, their prosperity will not save them from the consequences of their disobedience. The wicked foolishly seek material blessings in the present, but Proverbs continually reminds us that it is better to suffer now and avoid the consequences of the future.

Proverbs has a way of downplaying the present difficulties the righteous face, in favor of focusing on the ideal blessing reserved for the righteous who have been given the wisdom of God. This blessing may be experienced in part right now, but the righteous can also look forward to a blessed future beyond this life. At times, Proverbs may sound idealistic, but through Jesus Christ, who perfectly fulfilled the wisdom of God set forth in Proverbs, that ideal will one day be realized. In the end, a truly wise person is one who realizes that this life is not about how many cattle we own, how much pleasure we can find, or how much money we can make. One who is truly wise understands that life consists of fearing God and obeying his commands. That is how we will glorify God in this life and the next.

The Purpose of Suffering

In the book of Job, Job’s three friends made a logical deduction. They thought that since sin often brings suffering, the presence of suffering in Job’s life meant that he must have sinned. But their logic was flawed. Suffering can be the result of sin, but there are other reasons for suffering. At times, suffering is not the result of sin, but rather it has a greater purpose. Job suffered for a greater purpose. He suffered for God’s glory. Later, in the New Testament, Jesus reminded the Jewish leaders of this greater purpose for suffering when he taught that even blindness isn’t necessarily the result of sin, but it can also take place for God’s glory. Sometimes it is difficult to see a greater purpose for suffering, but we can be assured that God does have a purpose for all suffering, even if at times that purpose is hidden from us.

While suffering may involve a greater purpose, the pain of suffering is not taken away. The people of God, however, have wonderful tools at their disposal when they struggle to deal with the physical and mental pain their suffering brings. The writers of the laments show us a wide variety of responses to suffering, from crying out in pain to laying their case before the Lord, to seeking the destruction of their enemies, who are also the enemies of God. In addition to laments, the songs of confidence found in the Psalms provide worthy examples of trusting God in the midst of suffering. As we look at these songs, we can find reasons for our own confidence in God despite whatever suffering we might experience. In fact, as we approach our suffering from God’s perspective, we can rejoice in it, just like the first century Christians rejoiced that they could share in the sufferings of Jesus. It is not that we desire pain, but we can rejoice that we are counted worthy to suffer for the sake of the Kingdom of God.

There are times when suffering will cause us to question our faith and to question the extent of our love for the Lord. But when we fail to be perfect in our sufferings, we can be assured that Christ suffered perfectly for us and that his righteous suffering is imputed to us as righteousness through God’s grace. We can look to Jesus as the ultimate innocent one who suffered for God’s glory and for our redemption.

Recognizing the God of Salvation

In Psalm 27:1, David declared, “The Lord is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear?” This sentiment is echoed throughout the Psalms and Wisdom Literature. The Psalms of Praise give praise to God for the salvation he brings. The Kingship Psalms show the power that lay behind the salvation of God’s people. Job cried out to God for deliverance. Even the writer of Ecclesiastes showed the despair that comes to a world where God is not the Redeemer. For David and other Old Testament writers, salvation was defined by a relationship between God and his people. The people were utterly dependent on God for their deliverance. God, in turn, was shown to be fully capable and entirely willing to bring about their salvation. The psalmists sang songs of praise because they recognized that they were in a covenant relationship with the God of the universe, who was also their Savior and Deliverer. This relationship between God and his people still defines salvation today. Just as Job cried out for a mediator, we, too, are in desperate need of a mediator between ourselves and God. We, too, cry out for Jesus Christ, the only Mediator between ourselves and God. And we can look back in history and see that Jesus Christ came as the fulfillment of the psalms that anticipated him. We can see now that he loves his church as intensely as the shepherd in the Song of Solomon loved the Shulammite.

While our salvation has eternal consequences, it also has effects in this world. The poetry and wisdom literature of the Old Testament helps us to understand these effects in detail. One of the effects of salvation is our deliverance from evil. While salvation ultimately means salvation from our own sins and the destruction and death brought on by our sin, the poetry and wisdom literature of the Old Testament reminds us that God delivers us from all the evil effects of this world. The Psalms, in particular, praise God for the deliverance he brings from enemies, from wicked nations and individuals, from trouble and afflictions of all kinds. We may not see these effects as quickly and completely as we would like right now, but we know the deliverance of the Lord is sure to come. And one day, our trust in him will be vindicated, when all that is evil in this world will be thrown down. Until then, the God of our salvation prompts us to live righteous lives. The wisdom literature of the Old Testament helps us understand that a life lived outside of a right relationship with the Lord is meaningless. It results in hopelessness and vanity. But a life that has been changed through the power and redemptive work of Jesus Christ has new meaning and a renewed hope.

4

The Books of Prophecy

The stereotypical image of a prophet is one of a scruffy, unshaven man wearing clothes made of camel hair and proclaiming the end of the world. As we’re about to learn, however, prophets were court officials, diplomats, farmers, loners, team players, soft-spoken encouragers, criers, reluctant messengers, blunt accusers, and more—all called by God to serve him in a special role. Their prophecy also went far beyond simply foretelling the future or proclaiming the end of the world.

Background

The books of prophecy include the 17 books of the Bible that make up the end of the Old Testament from Isaiah through Malachi. This chapter will cover some background to the books as well as their content and application.

Genre

Our discussion will focus on the main genres used by the prophets: historical narrative, poetry, prayers, and speeches. We will begin with a discussion of historical narrative, focusing particularly on how the prophets used historical narrative in their own unique ways.

Historical Narrative

A narrative is a story. The historical narratives of the Old Testament include all the common elements of a story like setting, beginning action, conflict, complications, a resolution, and a conclusion. Some of the prophets include large sections of historical narrative. The book of Jonah is largely historical narrative, as is the first half of the book of Daniel. Jeremiah and Ezekiel include portions of narrative. It can even be found in books like Isaiah, Hosea, and Amos. Since we have discussed historical narrative in earlier chapters, we will limit our discussion in this chapter to two topics: First, we will discuss types of historical narratives used by the prophets, and then we will discuss the content of their historical narratives.

One type of narrative is the biographical narrative. In this kind of narrative, the story is written from the third person point-of-view. The book of Jonah is written as a biographical narrative. In his book, we learn the story of Jonah’s call, his attempted flight to Tarshish, his ministry in Nineveh, and his reprimand from God. The first six chapters of the book of Daniel are also, largely biographical narrative, telling the story of Daniel in the land of Babylon.

A second type of narrative is the autobiographical narrative. In this kind of narrative, the story is written from the first-person point-of-view. Chapters 7–12 in the book of Daniel are mostly autobiographical narrative. In these chapters, Daniel reported what happened to him in his own words. The chapters include reports of Daniel’s visions and his prayer for the people of Israel. Other prophets also use the autobiographical narrative. For example, Jeremiah used this type of narrative to record the circumstances surrounding his call to be a prophet, and Ezekiel recorded his visions as autobiographical narratives.

We can also say something about the content of historical narrative in the prophets. In the Old Testament, historical narrative could be used to tell any kind of story, but the prophets focused their use of historical narrative in four particular ways (see Ryken Symbols and Reality 47-48):

Some prophets, like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, used historical narrative to describe how God commissioned them to speak on his behalf. The stories showed the daunting nature of the call, even in the eyes of the prophets themselves. It also served to validate their work on God’s behalf. When we read things in the prophets that are difficult to accept, we still must acknowledge that these prophets were called by God, and their words come with God’s own authority.

Historical narratives also described symbolic actions prophets performed to communicate their message. The book of Hosea used historical narrative to describe how God commanded Hosea to marry an unfaithful wife as a symbol of Israel’s unfaithfulness. Historical narratives describe how God commanded Jeremiah to bury a linen belt until it rotted in the ground, in order to communicate Judah’s corruption. They describe how God commanded Ezekiel to draw a picture of Jerusalem on a clay tablet and lay siege to it, erecting siegeworks against it, and placing battering rams around it.

Prophets also used narratives to describe visions they received from the Lord. Prophets like Joel, Amos, Zechariah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and others all recorded visions they received from the Lord. For example, Amos described visions of locust swarms, fire, and drought consuming the land. When Amos cried out to the Lord that the punishment was so severe, the Lord relented and showed Amos a vision of God measuring a wall with a plumb line, showing that God would judge each individual and destroy only those who rebelled against him.

Not only did prophets use narrative to describe their call, or to report a symbolic action or vision, but they also used narrative to provide background information to their prophecy. One of Isaiah’s more famous prophecies in 7:14 states, “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.” While many Christians point to this verse as a prophecy of Jesus Christ, the historical narrative that surrounds this verse shows us that the virgin giving birth was primarily a sign for Ahab, who refused to trust the Lord for his deliverance. In this case, the historical narrative provides a context that gives us a fuller understanding of the text in question.

As we have seen, Old Testament prophecy is filled with stories. These stories help us understand the prophet’s call. They record dramatic visions and symbolic action. And they help to provide a context for better understanding the prophecy presented. When we encounter narrative in the prophets, we do well to pay it the attention it deserves.

Hebrew Poetry

Historical narrative is primarily a prose form of literature, but the prophets also made extensive use of poetry. Since we have discussed poetry in detail in earlier chapters, we will simply give a quick summary of Hebrew poetry in this chapter. Hebrew poetry is literature marked by a heavy reliance on rhythmic structures, figures of speech, imagery, and intense emotional expressions. Hebrew poets used words concisely and often placed them in parallel structures. Hebrew poetry was the genre of choice for passionate, intense, and dramatic expression.

Prayers

When prophets addressed God, they expressed the full range of human emotions, from sorrow to joy. The prayers they composed reflected this range of emotions by taking the form of laments, praise, and petitions.

Laments were prayers in which the prophets described their disappointment and sadness to God. The prophets knew how things should be, but they also knew that things were not that way. And so, the prophets felt disoriented and confused. All the prophets, except for Haggai, included some form of lament in their writings. Ultimately, laments were written when the prophet was distressed about sin within the congregation of Israel, or when he was distressed about the consequences that God brought as a result of Israel’s sin. The form of the prophets’ laments was similar to the laments found in the Psalms, which was discussed in chapter three.

Praise showed the prophets’ feelings at the other end of the spectrum. When prophets offered praise to God in their prayers, they usually praised him for his covenant blessings or for his judgment. God has always maintained a covenant relationship with his people. And just as a father gives good gifts to his children, God blesses his people who are in a covenant relationship with him. The prophets always gave hope to God’s people that even if God had earlier punished their sin and removed their blessings from them, God would bless his covenant people again. For example, in Joel 3:17-18, we read,

“So you shall know that I am the Lord your God,
who dwells in Zion, my holy mountain.

And Jerusalem shall be holy,
and strangers shall never again pass through it.

And in that day
the mountains shall drip sweet wine,
and the hills shall flow with milk,
and all the streambeds of Judah
shall flow with water;
and a fountain shall come forth from the house of the Lord
and water the Valley of Shittim.”

Prophets also praised God for his judgment on people and nations. God blessed his covenant people, but he also punished those who hurt his people. As Joel said in 3:19,

“Egypt shall become a desolation
and Edom a desolate wilderness,
for the violence done to the people of Judah,
because they have shed innocent blood in their land.”

In both circumstances—in blessings and judgment—God is to be praised.

In addition to laments and praise, prophets communicated with God in the form of petitions. Prophets called on God to enforce the conditions of the covenant, but to do so with justice and mercy for God’s people. Consider Jeremiah’s prayer in Jeremiah 10:23-25:

“I know, O Lord, that the way of man is not in himself,
that it is not in man who walks to direct his steps.

Correct me, O Lord, but in justice;
not in your anger, lest you bring me to nothing.

Pour out your wrath on the nations that know you not,
and on the peoples that call not on your name,
for they have devoured Jacob;
they have devoured him and consumed him,
and have laid waste his habitation.”

Jeremiah petitioned the Lord to correct him in mercy, but also to show his judgment on the surrounding nations who treated God’s people so terribly.

Speeches

When prophets made speeches, they often proclaimed judgment, blessing, or a mixture of blessing and judgment. When prophets proclaimed judgment, they proclaimed warnings that judgment would take place if the people did not repent. The judgments were always conditioned upon the people’s repentance. Despite the proclamation of judgment, repentance could still lead to blessing. Likewise, when the prophets proclaimed blessing, they held out to the people an offer of blessing that would come through repentance and obedience. The blessings were conditioned upon the obedience of the people. If the people did not obey, the blessings would be taken away. This is exactly what Jeremiah proclaimed to the people when he declared in Jeremiah 18:7-10,

“If at any time I declare concerning a nation or a kingdom, that I will pluck up and break down and destroy it, and if that nation, concerning which I have spoken, turns from its evil, I will relent of the disaster that I intended to do to it. And if at any time I declare concerning a nation or a kingdom that I will build and plant it, and if it does evil in my sight, not listening to my voice, then I will relent of the good that I had intended to do to it.”

Speeches of Judgment

Speeches of judgment could take many forms (see Pratt 1066). One speech of judgment that prophets used was a lawsuit. At times, the prophets literally placed the people on trial. They brought a lawsuit against the people on behalf of God. In this courtroom of heaven, God’s people were placed on trial for violating the terms of the covenant between God and themselves. The prophets proclaimed the curses of the covenant as right and just sentences upon the people who were convicted of breaking the covenant.

Another speech of judgment was an oracle of judgment. Oracles are revelations from God delivered by a prophet with divine authority. Oracles of judgment were judgments against the people proclaimed with divine authority. While not as formal as lawsuits, oracles of judgment stated the accusations that God was making and the judgments that would follow.

A third speech of judgment was called a woe oracle. This was an oracle that a prophet proclaimed when a judgment was particularly dire. It would begin with the phrase, “Woe to....” Then it would name the person or group being addressed, make an accusation of sin, and state the judgment that would result from the sin.

While lawsuits, oracles of judgment, and woe oracles were the main speeches of judgment the prophets used to communicate God’s judgment to the people, the prophets had other ways at their disposal to communicate God’s displeasure and coming judgment. During the times of the prophets, after battles had been fought, the victors, reveling in their victory, would sometimes sing taunt songs against the enemies they defeated (see Ryken Symbols and Reality 49-52). Micah referred to this practice of singing taunt songs in Micah 2:4, which says,

“In that day they shall take up a taunt song against you
and moan bitterly
and say, ‘We are utterly ruined;
he changes the portion of my people;
how he removes it from me!

To an apostate he allots our fields.’”

The prophets not only warned the people that their enemies would sing taunt songs against them, but they also used the songs to taunt the enemies of God’s people. They used the songs to proclaim God’s victory over his enemies even before the enemies were defeated. Isaiah 14 includes a taunt song that describes the ultimate end of Israel’s future oppressors. It begins this way in verse 4-5:

“…How the oppressor has ceased,

The insolent fury ceased!

The Lord has broken the staff of the wicked…”

In addition to taunt songs, prophets also used wisdom sayings like those found in Wisdom Literature as speeches of judgment. For example, Isaiah, in 28:23-29, drew wisdom from the farmer to explain God’s methodical preparation of Judah for judgment. As is customary with wisdom sayings, Isaiah focused on the created order and gained insight from his observations of it.

Speeches of Blessing

Speeches of blessing contained offers of blessing if the people would repent and obey. In Joel 2:13, the prophet Joel made an amazing promise to any of God’s people who would repent of their sin with something more than a mere external act of repentance. He said,

“…rend your heart and not your garments.

Return to the Lord your God,
for he is gracious and merciful,
slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love;
and he relents over disaster.”

The prophets had several ways to declare God’s blessing (see Pratt 1066). One common prophetic form was an oracle of salvation. Normally, oracles of salvation included an announcement of blessing, followed by several paragraphs or stanzas that examined the blessing from all angles, elaborating on the good gifts that the Lord had in store for his people. A prominent focus of the oracles of salvation was the restoration of God’s people from exile. Centuries earlier, God had made a promise to the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that their descendants would inherit the land of Canaan for their very own. Later this promise was confirmed through Moses, but it also included a warning that the people would lose the land and be brought into exile if they disobeyed the Lord their God, but would be restored from exile if they returned to the Lord. Even Solomon, in his prayer at the dedication of the temple, asked God to forgive his people if they had a change of heart and repented in the land of their exile. In one sense, the oracles of salvation were fulfilled when a remnant of Israelites returned from exile and rebuilt Jerusalem. But the oracles of salvation also awaited future fulfillment that came with the arrival of Jesus Christ. Complete and comprehensive salvation is only found in Jesus Christ. And only in Jesus Christ will his salvation be consummated when he comes again to establish the new heavens and the new earth.

Another common prophetic form that the prophets used to declare God’s blessing was an oracle against the nations. These oracles proclaimed judgment against nations that were oppressing God’s people or rejoicing in the oppression of Israel by others. The oracle would state a specific accusation against a nation or ethnic group and then describe the judgment that awaited. While these oracles were judgments against other nations, they served as messages of blessing for God’s people, who were straining under the weight of their oppression. By stating that God’s justice would one day be served against these nations, God was giving his people hope that their oppression would ultimately be temporary. Judgments against the nations could refer to specific judgments of God on specific nations, or they could refer more broadly to the worldwide judgment that would come after Israel was restored from exile. Both types of judgment would result in the punishment of the wicked and the restoration of God’s people.

Speeches of Blessing and Judgment

In some cases, prophets would include a blessing for God’s people and judgments against others in the same speech. At other times, prophets would issue a call to repentance, threatening judgment against those who did not repent and promising blessings for those who did. In still other cases, prophets would issue calls to war, but these calls could be calls to victory or defeat—victory for those whom God would bless but defeat for those whom God would punish.

Disputations

Prophets also used disputations, in which they would call other prophets or the people of God to make a case for what they were saying and doing. Again, we can turn to Isaiah for an example. In Isaiah 43:26, God stated through Isaiah, “Put me in remembrance; let us argue together; set forth your case, that you may be proved right.” While not as formal as a lawsuit, a disputation showed God challenging his people to dispute his claims against them. Either blessing or punishment would be served based on God’s justice.

Parables

Prophets also used parables to make positive statements about God’s grace or negative statements about his judgment. In Isaiah 5, we read a parable about a vineyard. A vineyard that produces good fruit is tended and cared for while a vineyard that does not is destroyed. So too, Israel must bear good fruit, or it will be turned into a wasteland.

Messianic Prophecy

Messianic prophecy predicted the coming of Jesus Christ, the Messiah (Ryken Symbols and Reality 52-53). Ryken states, “if we compile these prophecies into a composite story, they cover the entire earthly life of Jesus—his birth, his teachings and miracles, his atoning death, his resurrection, and his ascension” (53). An example of messianic prophecy is found in Isaiah 9:6-7:

For to us a child is born,
to us a son is given;
and the government shall be upon his shoulder,
and his name shall be called

Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God,

Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.

Of the increase of his government and of peace
there will be no end,
on the throne of David and over his kingdom,
to establish it and to uphold it
with justice and with righteousness
from this time forth and forevermore.

Apocalyptic Visions

When most people hear the term apocalyptic literature, they first think of the book of Revelation. It is true that Revelation is made up primarily of this genre, but apocalyptic literature as a genre had a long history before John wrote his apocalypse. In fact, it can be argued the apocalyptic visions in the Old Testament served as a foundation for what John wrote in Revelation. Many of the themes and symbols in the Old Testament apocalyptic visions reappear in the New Testament book of Revelation. We can see primary examples of Old Testament apocalyptic visions in the books of Ezekiel, Daniel, Zechariah, and others. Let’s look at some of the distinctive themes and symbols in this type of literature in the Old Testament prophets.

In general, apocalyptic visions in the Old Testament reveal something about the future, particularly the future judgment that the Lord will bring against all those who oppose him, which will be accompanied by salvation for his people. Very often, this judgment is portrayed as arriving in a cataclysmic event. The Lord will come in awesome power characterized by earthquakes, fire, and other forms of devastation. Ezekiel 38:19-20 states,

“On that day there shall be a great earthquake in the land of Israel. The fish of the sea and the birds of the heavens and the beasts of the field and all creeping things that creep on the ground, and all the people who are on the face of the earth shall quake at my presence. And the mountains shall be thrown down, and the cliffs shall fall, and every wall shall tumble to the ground.”

Similarly, Daniel described the devastation this way:

“I looked then because of the sound of the great words that the horn was speaking. And as I looked, the beast was killed, and its body destroyed and given over to be burned with fire.” (Dan. 7:11)

The Lord, who brings this devastation, is described in fantastic images and symbols. Here is an example from Daniel 7:9-10,

As I looked,
thrones were placed,
and the Ancient of Days took his seat
his clothing was white as snow
and the hair of his head like pure wool;
his throne was fiery flames;
its wheels were burning fire.

A stream of fire issued
and came out from before him
a thousand thousands served him
and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him
the court sat in judgment,
and the books were opened.

Many of the descriptions of the Lord, as well as descriptions of those who oppose the Lord, are highly symbolic. So, the Ancient of Days in Daniel 7 is described as having clothing as white as snow, symbolizing his uncompromising righteousness. The wheels of his throne were burning fire, symbolizing the terrible destruction that accompanies his judgment.

Often, these symbols are left to the reader’s interpretation, but at other times they are explained within the vision itself. For example, the prophet Zechariah said in Zech. 5:1-4,

“Again, I lifted my eyes and saw, and behold, a flying scroll! And he said to me, ‘What do you see?’ I answered, “I see a flying scroll. Its length is twenty cubits, and its width ten cubits.’ Then he said to me, ‘this is the curse that goes out over the whole land. For everyone who steals shall be cleaned out according to what is on the side, and everyone who swears falsely shall be cleaned out according to what is on the other side. I will send it out declares the Lord of hosts, and it shall enter the house of the thief, and the house of him who swears falsely by my name. And it shall remain in his house and consume it, both timber and stones.’”

Not all prophets included apocalyptic visions, but many did. While the visions may seem outlandish and fanciful at first glance, they are filled with meaning. The time you spend pondering them will pay big dividends.

The Role of the Prophet

A prophet was a mouthpiece for God (Bartholomew 168). He served God in the same way that Aaron served Moses in the Exodus. When Moses questioned his ability, God promised him in Exodus 7:1, “See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron shall be your prophet.” When Aaron functioned as a prophet for Moses, the words may have come from Aaron’s mouth, but the effect was as if Moses himself had said them. When other prophets spoke on God’s behalf, they spoke with God’s authority, as if God himself had said the words. And the people of Israel were called to attend to the prophet’s words with the same respect they showed to God.

After the kingship was established in Israel, the prophet’s role became more formal, with the prophet functioning as an emissary between God, the great king, and his vassals, the kings and nation of Israel (Pratt 1065). When the prophets functioned as emissaries, they spoke for God and gave direction for faithfully following the covenant, warning the unfaithful of judgment and calling them to repentance, while also declaring the blessings of the covenant for those who remained true to their Lord. This was particularly true of the writing prophets. They pronounced the blessing and curses of the covenant. They pronounced lesser, immediate curses and also the greatest curse: the destruction of Israel and removal from the land. They also pronounced lesser blessing for obedience and the greatest blessing of all: the restoration after the exile.

The Tests of a True Prophet

For the people of Israel, it was vitally important that they understand who a true prophet was and who was not. True prophets spoke with the authority of God. False prophets did not. Already during the Exodus, Moses identified three tests of true prophets that when taken together would distinguish them from all false prophets (see Pratt 1065)

Moses stated the first test in Deuteronomy 18:15 when he said, “The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among you, from your brothers—it is to him you shall listen.” A true prophet would be raised up from among his own brothers; in other words, he would be an Israelite. A true prophet would also be one whom the Lord raised up. True prophets did not prophesy in their own strength. The Lord raised them up to be prophets, even when the prophets themselves often shrank from the task.

Moses stated the second test of a true prophet in Deuteronomy 13:1-5. A true prophet had to be loyal to the covenant as mediated by Moses. No matter how good a prophet sounded, if he strayed from the theological foundation that Moses laid, he was a false prophet and should be ignored. Here’s how Moses put it in Deuteronomy 13:1-3a:

“If a prophet or a dreamer of dreams arises among you and gives you a sign or a wonder, and the sign or wonder that he tells you comes to pass, and if he says, ‘Let us go after other gods,’ which you have not known, ‘and let us serve them,’ you shall not listen to the words of that prophet or that dreamer of dreams.”

A final test of a true prophet was whether his predictions came to pass. Moses stated it this way in Deuteronomy 18:22, “when a prophet speaks in the name of the Lord, if the word does not come to pass or come true, that is a word that the Lord has not spoken; that prophet has spoken it presumptuously. You need not be afraid of him” True prophets could prove themselves by the reliability of their predictions. Isaiah was well-known in his day as a true prophet because of the fulfillment of many of his earlier prophecies by the time the book of Isaiah was written.

But we need to be careful. We need to always keep in mind the conditional nature of prophetic judgments and blessings that we discussed earlier. True prophets could still proclaim judgment on the people even while knowing that if the people repented, the judgment would be avoided. So, Jonah could proclaim to Nineveh that in forty days, Nineveh would be destroyed, even though, in the end, Nineveh repented and was not destroyed according to Jonah’s prediction.

The test of a true prophet that Moses gave refers to situations like the one we find in 1 Kings 22, where Ahab assembled his false prophets who assured him that the Lord would give Ramoth Gilead into his hand, while Micaiah, the true prophet, said otherwise. When Zedekiah, one of the false prophets, confronted Micaiah, asking him, “How did the Spirit of the Lord go from me to speak to you?” (v. 24) Micaiah replied, “Behold, you shall see on that day when you go into an inner chamber to hide yourself,” (v. 25) referring to the aftermath that would come from Ahab’s defeat and death at Ramoth Gilead.

Historical Settings

While many non-writing prophets appeared throughout the history of Israel from Abraham to John the Baptist, our focus will be on the prophets who left behind a body of written work. The writing prophets were not evenly spread throughout the history of Israel, but rather were concentrated in times of crisis and transition. In general, we can talk about three sets of historical circumstances that influenced the prophets and their message. They are the Assyrian judgment, the Babylonian judgment, and the restoration (Pratt 1064).

The Assyrian Judgment

Assyria was located in the upper Tigris River region. It lay in a fertile valley between the Syrian desert and the Kurdish hills. Israel was located to its southwest, with Syria in between. Assyria coveted the lands beyond the Euphrates to the west because of their timber and mineral resources, as well as being a gateway to Egypt (Bright 270). It made numerous incursions into the area until finally becoming the dominant Ancient Near East power in the 8th century B.C. At the height of its power, its empire stretched from modern-day Turkey to the Persian Gulf and as far south as Egypt. (Bromiley v1 332).

The Assyrian Judgment came in three stages. In 734 B.C., Israel and Judah formed a coalition with Syria to fight against Assyria. Syria was defeated, and Israel was placed in subjection to Assyria. In 722 B.C. in the face of repeated rebellion, Assyria destroyed Samaria, the capital city of the Northern tribes, and took many Israelites captive. In 701 B.C., during the reign of Hezekiah in Jerusalem, Assyria threatened Judah, laying siege to Jerusalem. But the Lord turned them back. (Pratt 1064)

The following prophets were associated with the Assyrian judgment (Pratt 1064):

- Amos      793-740 B.C.

- Jonah      786-746 B.C.

- Hosea      753-722 B.C.

- Micah      742-686 B.C.

- Isaiah      740-686 B.C.

- Nahum      663-627 B.C.

Assyria was well-known as a military power. Its armies were disciplined and highly mobile. They were ruthless in war. They would lay siege to cities until the inhabitants had died from starvation, or their resistance was broken. They physically abused their captives, plucking out eyes and cutting off hands at will. Dockery notes that the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III and Shalmaneser V contain numerous boasts about “the quantity of heads in piles, the number of pregnant women ripped open, and the quantity of little ones who had been ‘dashed against the rocks’” (36) To fall into the hands of the Assyrians was a frightening prospect. And the prophets declared that it was this army that God would use to judge his people.

The Babylonian Judgment

Eventually, the Assyrian empire fell to the Babylonians. Babylonia was located in the plain of Iraq, south of the Hamrin hills. It was a land divided and watered by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (Bromiley v1 392). Babylon claimed its place as a world power when it conquered Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, in 612 BC. For the people of Judah, the Babylonian judgment began soon after.

Like the Assyrian Judgment, the Babylonian judgment occurred in three stages. In 605 B.C., Babylon put Judah under subjection and carried some of the nobles and their families into exile. Daniel and his three friends were taken to Babylon during this first incursion. In 597 B.C., Babylon invaded Judah again and deported more people. Only the poorest of the poor remained in Judah. Ezekiel was taken captive during this second incursion. Finally, in 586 B.C., Babylon invaded Judah a third time. Jerusalem was destroyed, and the exile of Judah was completed (Pratt 1064).

The following prophets were associated with the Babylonian judgment (Pratt 1064):

- Zephaniah      640-609 B.C.

- Jeremiah      626-586 B.C.

- Habakkuk      605 B.C.

- Ezekiel      592-572 B.C.

- Obadiah      585 B.C.

- Daniel      539 B.C.

- Joel      uncertain

The date for Joel is uncertain. We include him with the prophets under the Babylonian judgment because he likely taught in Jerusalem and not among the ten northern tribes. (Calvin Minor Prophets v2 xvi). Sproul notes that a date after the exile is also possible; however, in the end, we must conclude with Calvin and Sproul that it is impossible to date the book of Joel with any certainty (Sproul 1256).

The Babylonians soon proved that they could be as ruthless as the Assyrians they conquered. But they were not totally focused on their military might. They were much more intellectual than the Assyrians (Dockery 36). As the Babylonians built their empire, they also built a civilization, leaving a body of literature and a codified system of law that we can still access today (Bromiley v1 396-99). Nebuchadnezzar is credited with making Babylon a world-class city, which included the hanging gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. But as cultured as the Babylonian civilization was, the exiles from Judah still longed to return to the land the Lord had promised them.

The Restoration

The longing of the exiles was finally achieved during the period of the restoration. This was when a remnant of the Jews who were taken captive to Babylon returned to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem. The restoration came from the land of Persia, which lay to the east of Babylon. Cyrus was the ruler of Persia. He was given the Persian throne by his grandfather, the king of Media, to the north, when Persia was in subjection to the Medes. After Cyrus built up his power in Persia, he overthrew his grandfather and consolidated his rule over Persia and Media (Bromiley v3 778). The consolidated power of Media and Persia allowed Cyrus to attack and ultimately defeat the empire of Babylon in 539 B.C. At that time, Cyrus released a number of Jews to return to Jerusalem. Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, and Jeshua, the high priest led this group. Other key dates from this time period include the following: From 520 to 515 B.C., the temple was rebuilt. Then later, from around 450 to 400 B.C., the people intermarried with foreign women and slipped into widespread apostasy, causing Ezra and Nehemiah to institute several reforms in an attempt to turn the people back to faithful living (Pratt 1064).

The following prophets associated with the Restoration (Pratt 1064):

- Haggai      520
- Zechariah      520
- Malachi      458-433

Haggai and Zechariah both began prophesying in Jerusalem around 520 B.C., exhorting the people to rebuild the temple. Malachi ministered sometime during or after Nehemiah’s reforms. Despite Ezra and Nehemiah’s reforms, the people of God were so affected by false religion, that their hope of an imminent, glorious restoration of Jerusalem and Judaism was dashed, and Malachi proclaimed a great judgment against the people of God. At that time, Malachi ceased his prophetic work, and the Old Testament prophetic period ended. But before Malachi put down his pen, he predicted that God would send a new Elijah (Malachi 4:5), who came 400 years later in the person of John the Baptist, announcing the arrival of the New Testament age.

Authors

With some notable exceptions, the prophetic books generally take their names from the men who wrote them. We will divide our discussion of the authors into three sections corresponding to the three sets of historical circumstances that influenced the prophets and their message: 1) prophets during the Assyrian judgment; 2) prophets during the Babylonian judgment; and 3) prophets during the restoration.

The prophets who wrote during the Assyrian judgment were Amos, Jonah, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, and Nahum.

Amos

Amos was a farmer from the village of Tekoa, about six miles south of Jerusalem. He tended sheep (1:1), bred livestock (7:14), and maintained sycamore-fig trees (7:14). Despite his background as a farmer, he was familiar with the law of God and the history of God’s covenant people. He also was familiar with international events. Although his home was in Judah, he ministered primarily to the northern kingdom during its prosperous times under Jeroboam II, and only occasionally addressed the sins of Judah (ISBE v1 114-15).

Jonah

The author of the book of Jonah is unknown. The main character of the book is the prophet Jonah, the son of Amittai. We know that Jonah composed the prayer that makes up most of chapter two. The only other thing we know about Jonah is that he is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 as the prophet who proclaimed God’s blessing on the northern kingdom during the reign of Jeroboam II (ISBE v2 1112).

Hosea

Hosea was the son of Beeri. He most likely made his home in the northern kingdom of Israel. He ministered to Israel during their prosperous times before Israel made a coalition with Syria that brought down judgment from Assyria. He continued ministering during the troubled final years of Samaria. Hosea’s troubled personal life, including his marriage to Gomer, reflected the troubled relationship of Israel with the Lord. When Samaria fell in 722 B.C., Hosea probably relocated to Judah (ISBE v2 761-62).

Micah

Micah was a prophet from the town of Moresheth, in Judah, southwest of Jerusalem. He ministered alongside Isaiah, focusing his ministry primarily in Jerusalem during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He is mentioned in Jeremiah 26:18 as having some influence during the reign of Hezekiah (ISBE v3 344-45).

Isaiah

Isaiah began his ministry in the year King Uzziah died and continued to ministry through the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He lived in Jerusalem, where he focused his ministry. We know that he was married at least once and that he had at least two sons. While he ministered in Judah, the Lord brought about the destruction of the northern tribes at the hand of Assyria. Isaiah also prophesied about the Babylonian judgment, which took place after his death. He is known as the “evangelical prophet” since his writings are characterized by an exaltation of the grace of God in salvation (ISBE v2 885).

Nahum

Nahum means comfort. When Nahum wrote his book, he offered comfort to the people of Judah by proclaiming judgment against Nineveh, Judah’s oppressor. He is referred to as an Elkoshite, but the location of Elkosh is no longer known (ISBE v3 477).

The prophets who wrote during the Babylonian judgment included Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Baruch, the author of Lamentations, Habakkuk, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Daniel, and possibly Joel.

Zephaniah

Zephaniah prophesied in Judah during the reign of Josiah. He is the only prophet to have his lineage traced back four generations. His great-grandfather was a man named Hezekiah. Since a lineage was usually only prepared when very important people were involved, the Hezekiah mentioned is quite possibly the famous king Hezekiah. That would have made Zephaniah a member of the extended royal family with access to the royal court (ISBE v4 1189).

Jeremiah and Baruch

God called Jeremiah to be a prophet during the 13th year of Josiah’s reign (Jer. 1:2). Jeremiah continued to serve as a prophet to Judah during the decline and ultimate destruction of Jerusalem. He even prophesied in Egypt after he was included against his will with those who fled Judah after the assassination of Gedaliah (Jer. 43:6-7). This was a tumultuous time in the history of Judah, and Jeremiah reflected that great struggle in his prophecies as well as his personal life. Jeremiah was born into a family of priests and lived in Anathoth, about two or three miles from Jerusalem (Jer. 1:1). He was instructed by God not to marry or raise a family, and he remained celibate all his life (Jer. 16:2). Jeremiah was called to “pluck up and to break down, to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant (1:10), which shows that his preaching was to be both destructive and constructive (ISBE v2 986). It was also intended not only for the people of God but for all the nations (Jer. 25:26).

Serving with Jeremiah was his scribe, Baruch, the son of Neriah and brother of Seraiah, King Zedekiah’s quartermaster (Jer. 51:59). Baruch may have risen to a high position within the kingdom of Judah, but repressed his ambitions to serve Jeremiah (ISBE v1 433). Baruch faithfully recorded all the words Jeremiah dictated to him and read them to the people (Jer. 36:6). He was carried away to Egypt, along with Jeremiah (Jer. 43: 6). For his faithfulness, the Lord allowed Baruch to escape the Babylonian conquest with his life (Jer. 43:5).

The Author(s) of Lamentations

In Christian tradition, Jeremiah is considered to have authored the book of Lamentations. However, in the Hebrew canon, Lamentations is not connected with the book of Jeremiah. The tradition of Jeremiah being the author of Lamentations comes from 2 Chronicles 35:25, which says that Jeremiah “uttered a lament for Josiah.” This connects Jeremiah with the composition of a lament, but the laments that make up Lamentations do not apply to Josiah (ISBE v3 65-66) It is certainly possible that Jeremiah composed the book, but there is no internal evidence to support it. So, it is equally possible that the five laments that make up the book were an anthology composed by several anonymous authors (Pratt 1289).

Habakkuk

The identification of Habakkuk as “the prophet” (v. 1) indicates that he was well-known in this role. His name means “embracer.” He ministered in and around Jerusalem and is known for his own personal struggle with understanding God’s justice in the face of sin and evil. Beyond that, not much is known about him, although many legends have arisen in an attempt to provide more details about his life. None of these legends have been proven to be true. (ISBE v2 583).

Ezekiel

Ezekiel was born into a family of priests. Normally, he would have entered temple service at the age of thirty. But four years prior to his thirtieth birthday, he was taken into exile during the second Babylonian incursion in 597 B. C. By the time he turned thirty, the temple had been destroyed, and he found himself in a foreign land, 700 miles from Jerusalem (Pratt 1304). But God had other plans for Ezekiel. In the year that he normally would have entered temple service, God called him to serve as a prophet. Ezekiel had been married, but his wife died soon after they entered into captivity. He was acknowledged as a prophet by the leaders of the exiles to whom he ministered. He is known for his vivid, apocalyptic visions as well as for acting out many of his prophecies (ISBE v2 257-58)

Obadiah

We know very little about the prophet Obadiah. His name means “servant, or worshiper, of the Lord,” but it was a common name among Israelites (ISBE v3 574). The emphasis of his writing is not on the man but on the message from the Lord (v. 18) that he was called to proclaim to Judah (Pratt 1456).

Daniel

Daniel, along with Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah, and others, were taken into exile during the first Babylonian incursion in 605 B.C. Because the first incursion generally took only the nobles and high officials and their families, Daniel most likely came from a high-ranking family in Judah. He entered exile as a young man and remained there throughout his entire life, serving the Babylonian and later Medo-Persian rulers in high levels of government. His Babylonian name was Belteshazzar. Daniel was known for being uncompromisingly faithful to the God of Israel, which is demonstrated in numerous stories in the first six chapters of the book of Daniel. The Lord gave him the ability to interpret dreams. The Lord also gave him apocalyptic visions, which are recorded in the second half of the book that bears his name (ISBE v1 858-9).

Joel

The prophet Joel was the son of Pethuel. The book of Joel gives no other information about him, and he is not mentioned anywhere else in Scripture. From his writing, he likely lived in or near Jerusalem. His book shows that he had detailed knowledge about temple practices, but he did not identify himself as a priest. In fact, when he mentioned priests in 1:9, 1:13, and 2:17, he spoke of priests in the third person (ISBE v2 1076).

The prophets during the restoration included Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

Haggai

Haggai’s name means “festal,” which may indicate that he was born near the time of the great pilgrimage feasts of Passover, Weeks, and Tabernacles. He was a contemporary of Zechariah (Ezra 5:1; 6:14). He ministered in Jerusalem during a short, four-month period in 520 B. C. A year earlier in 521 B.C., Darius the Great supported the rebuilding of the temple after work was halted during the reign of Cyrus, king of Persia. However, the remnant that had returned to Jerusalem were slow to begin the rebuilding efforts. Haggai preached sermons to encourage people to take up the work. (ISBE v2 594).

Zechariah

Zechariah was the son of Berekiah, the son of Iddo (Zech. 1:1). It is possible that he is the same Zechariah son of Iddo mentioned as a member of the priestly families who returned from captivity (ISBE v4 1182). Zechariah ministered in Jerusalem alongside Haggai, but his ministry continued longer than Haggai’s. Haggai’s ministry ended while there was still hope that Zerubbabel’s restoration program would succeed. Zechariah’s ministry continued even when it became clear that simply rebuilding the temple was not sufficient to bring divine blessing. Zechariah encouraged the remnant of Judah to focus on their long-term future and the place that Jerusalem would hold in the kingdom of God when it came in its fulness (Pratt 1508).

Malachi

Malachi was the last prophet to minister in the Old Testament era. There is some debate about whether Malachi was the author. Some believe that the word translated as “Malachi” is a title meaning “my messenger” or “my angel.” However, there are good reasons to believe that Malachi was a personal name. It is similar to other Hebrew names of the time, and it comes at a place in the text (1:1) where we would expect a personal name (ISBE v3 236). We do not know much else about Malachi other than the fact that he ministered in Jerusalem, calling the discouraged remnant of Judah to a renewed faith in their God, pointing them to the Messiah who was to come (Pratt 1526).

Original Audiences

As important as it is to know the authors of the prophetic books, it is also important to understand more about the people these authors first addressed with their writings. We can divide the original audiences into four groups: the northern tribes, Judah, the exiles who returned, and foreign nations.

The Northern Tribes

The northern ten tribes, known as the kingdom of Israel, had their beginning during the reign of Rehoboam, son of Solomon. When Rehoboam foolishly told the people to expect a harsher rule from him than what they received from his father, the ten northern tribes of Israel split from him and made Jeroboam, a former servant of Solomon, their king (1 Kings 12:16-20). One of the first acts of Jeroboam was to create two, new centers of worship at Dan and Bethel, and to supply them with two, new objects of worship in the form of golden calves (1 King 12:28-29). This blatant idolatry established a pattern of unfaithfulness in the ten northern tribes that continued, with few exceptions, until Assyria took them into captivity.

The faithlessness of Israel and its kings sometimes brought immediate consequences, as when Elijah proclaimed a drought in the face of Ahab’s unfaithfulness. But other times, the consequences were delayed, and the ten tribes experienced relative prosperity. Even Ahab, despite the drought, was able to enlarge the borders of his country. Jeroboam II ushered in a period of prosperity, despite his unfaithfulness to the Lord. During this time, the people who were contemporaries of prophets like Amos and Hosea were generally prosperous, even though they were also unfaithful. Toward the end, the people of Israel discovered that their prosperity could not save them. Assyria was growing in power, and with that power, they brought turmoil and destruction to all the nations around them. The people of Israel suffered and cried out in their suffering, but they still would not turn to the Lord for their salvation. And the prophets reminded them that indeed it was too late.

Judah

After the ten northern tribes formed their own nation, Judah continued under the reign of the Davidic dynasty. Throughout its history, Judah slipped into apostasy and idolatry but was brought back to faithfulness by obedient kings and prophets. Because of their obedience, the Lord allowed the people of Judah to resist the advances of the Assyrians when the ten northern tribes were taken captive by them (2 Kings 19:32-34). But Judah also lapsed into unfaithfulness that caused the Lord to send them to captivity in Babylon. Prophets during this time proclaimed Babylon’s rise to power. Some, like the prophet Nahum, even rejoiced that Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, would fall from power. But most of their prophetic energy was spent proclaiming Judah’s unfaithfulness and the disastrous consequences that unfaithfulness would bring.

The Exiles Who Returned

The exiles who returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel represented but a shadow of Judah and Israel’s former glory. They were poor, weak, and easily discouraged. The nations around them took special pains to try and discourage the remnant from continuing in their task to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem and to rebuild the temple (see Ezra 4:4-5). The prophets who ministered during this time focused on encouraging the people to continue in their task, to remain faithful, and to set their hope on the coming Messiah.

Foreign Nations

Besides the ten northern tribes, Judah, and the exiles who returned, the prophets also directed their messages to foreign nations. At times, the prophets meant for the people of God to hear their address to a foreign nation, but the foreign nations themselves were meant to hear these words of God, too. Some of the foreign nations that the prophets addressed took pleasure in the oppression of Israel. The prophets warned them that the day would come when their joy at the suffering of God’s people would be turned into despair. The prophets also assured some nations that despite their suffering, God would raise them up again, although not necessarily to their former glory. For example, Ezekiel 29:13-14 says, “For thus says the Lord God: At the end of forty years I will gather the Egyptians from the peoples among whom they were scattered, and I will restore the fortunes of Egypt and bring them back to the land of Pathros, the land of their origin, and there they shall be a lowly kingdom.” Throughout these addresses to the foreign nations, God made clear through his prophets that he directs the history of all nations, and that his purposes for all the nations will stand.

Content

In examining the content of the prophetic books, we will again divide the groups into books written during the Assyrian judgment, books written during the Babylonian judgment, and books written during the return from exile.

The books of the Assyrian judgment are Amos, Jonah, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, and Nahum.

Amos

Amos was a farmer from the land of Tekoa, but his ministry was directed toward the ten northern tribes of Israel. His message focused on the Assyrian judgment that was coming. Amos began his prophecy by stating, “The Lord roars from Zion” (1:2), setting the tone for much of the prophecy to follow. Amos drew a picture of the Lord as a roaring lion, ready to devour.

In chapters 1 and 2, he proclaimed judgment on all the nations to be devoured, and he included Judah and Israel among them. In chapters 3 through 6, Amos presented oracles against Israel that described the terrible nature of the judgment to come. In the oracles, Amos justified God’s decision to send judgment and described how determined God was to send it (Pratt 1436).

Amos then recorded a series of visions in chapter 7:1–9:10. The visions showed God as a just God, but one who was determined to bring severe judgment. Amos showed the Lord preparing a terrible plague of locusts, but when Amos cried out, the Lord relented. Again, Amos showed the Lord preparing fire to rage through the land, but when Amos cried out, the Lord relented. Then Amos related a vision of the Lord measuring his people against a plumb line, and the people not measuring true to plumb, confirming God’s decision to destroy them. Again, Amos related a vision of a basket of ripe fruit, and the Lord declaring in 8:2, “The end has come upon my people Israel; I will never again pass by them” Finally, Amos related a vision of God standing by his altar, directing the destruction of his people, with Amos unable to intervene.

But even though he declared fierce judgment, Amos ended his prophecy with hope in 9:11-15, proclaiming that one day God would his people and again plant them people in their own land.

Jonah

The prophet Jonah ministered to Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria. The book of Jonah describes Jonah’s call and the ministry he performed among the Ninevites. The book’s central message is that God can extend his mercy even to Nineveh, the capital city of an evil empire (Sproul 1286).

The book can be divided into two parallel sections.[6] Chapters 1 and 2 make up the first section. They describe God’s call to Jonah to extend God’s mercy to Nineveh by prophesying there. When Jonah refused and ran away, God sent judgment against Jonah in the form of a storm that battered the ship he was on, forcing the sailors to throw Jonah overboard. When Jonah repented, God rescued him and sent him on his way to Nineveh.

Chapters 3 and 4 make up the second section. When Jonah arrived in Nineveh and prophesied there, the Lord responded to Jonah’s obedience by granting repentance to the Ninevites. When Jonah showed his displeasure at Nineveh’s repentance, God reminded Jonah that God had every right to be concerned about so great a city.

Hosea

Hosea ministered to the northern ten tribes of Israel up to the time when Assyria took Israel captive. It is interesting, however, that 1:1 mentions four kings of Judah and only one king of Israel. It is possible that while his ministry was directed as a warning of judgment to the northern tribes of Israel, the written account of his ministry was also intended as a warning to Judah regarding their sin and the coming judgment for them (see ISBE v2 761-2).

The book can be divided into two sections, one dealing with Hosea’s experience, and the other dealing with Hosea’s prophetic message. Chapters 1 through 3 record Hosea’s experience in his marriage, divorce, and remarriage to Gomer. Gomer was an unfaithful wife despite Hosea’s continued attempts to turn her to faithfulness. Hosea’s relationship to Gomer was intended as a symbol of God’s relationship to Israel. Chapters 4 through 14 record Hosea’s message to Israel. Hosea told Israel that just as Gomer's unfaithfulness brought trouble in her life, so Israel’s violations of God’s covenant would lead to judgment, defeat, and exile. But he also assured the people of Israel that if they repented, they would again receive God’s blessing (Pratt 1403).

Micah

Micah’s written prophecies concerned Samaria and Jerusalem, the capital cities of Israel and Judah. During Micah’s ministry, the gap between the rich and poor in Israel became alarmingly wide, due in large part to corrupt political leadership. At the same time, Assyria was increasing in power. Micah proclaimed that God was going to use Assyria to judge his people. Micah held little hope for Samaria, but he called the people of Judah and Jerusalem to repentance and hope.

Micah arranged his prophecies into three cycles. Each cycle begins with prophecies of judgment and ends with at least one prophecy of hope (Pratt 1466). In the first prophetic cycle, in chapters 1–2, God threatened to deliver both Israel and Judah into the hands of the king of Assyria. Micah lamented over the future destruction of Samaria and the defeat of Jerusalem. But at the end of this cycle, Micah also proclaimed hope that a remnant would remain in Jerusalem if they depended solely on God’s mercy.

The second cycle of prophecies runs from chapters 3–5. It consists of three oracles of judgment and seven oracles of salvation. In this section, Micah proclaimed judgment on the corrupt leaders of Judah, who made the whole nation corrupt. Micah warned that Judah and Jerusalem would face exile from the land because of the nation’s corruption. But he also proclaimed future deliverance and exhorted the people to walk in the way of the Lord, depending entirely on his grace.

In the third cycle of prophecies, in chapters 6–7, Micah focused on the covenant between God and his people. He warned the people of Judah that judgment awaited them because they had broken the covenant. But here, too, Micah proclaimed that a forgiven remnant would endure because of God’s mercy and the oath God had pledged to Israel’s forefathers.

Isaiah

Isaiah’s lengthy ministry took place during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. The book of Isaiah was likely completed shortly after the reign of Hezekiah, between the periods of the Assyrian Judgment and the Babylonian Judgment. As a prophet in Jerusalem, Isaiah’s central message was to the people of Judah. He exhorted them to trust the Lord as they faced his judgments from Assyria and exile in Babylon. And he exhorted them to place their hope in God’s future restoration of his people.

Chapters 1–6 focus on Isaiah’s message of judgment and restoration. Isaiah served the Lord as a covenant prosecutor who proclaimed judgment against a people who had been unfaithful to their covenant God (Sproul 949).

In chapters 7–39, Isaiah responded to the judgment brought by Assyria. When Israel and Syria formed a coalition against Assyria, they tried to force Ahaz, king of Judah, to join the coalition. Ahaz, instead, appealed to Assyria for help, bringing the army of Assyria to the land. In 7:1–12:6, Isaiah responded to this invasion by Assyria by prophesying Israel’s defeat and exhorting the people of Judah not to be afraid of the Assyrians. Isaiah also prophesied that all the nations and their cities surrounding Israel and Judah would be thrown into upheaval by Assyria. Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Cush, Egypt, Babylon, Edom, Arabia, Tyre, and even Jerusalem would feel the effects of Assyria’s judgment. But the judgment ultimately would lead to joy as God would remain as the supreme Lord of the world. Chapters 24–27 recount Isaiah’s hope for a bright future and his praise to the God who would bring it. Chapters 28–39 move on to the period of Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah. Isaiah spent some time comparing Samaria and Jerusalem, exhorting Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem, to learn from Samaria’s defeat. He prophesied specific woes related to people who relied on Egypt rather than God. And he gave an account of Assyria’s invasion of Judah, the siege of Jerusalem, and its ultimate deliverance from the hands of Sennacherib.

Chapters 40–66 record Isaiah’s response to the Babylonian judgment. These are remarkable chapters since the Babylonian judgment was still in the future when these chapters were written. Even before the end came, Isaiah already comforted God’s people with the knowledge that one day God would restore them.

Isaiah’s literary style was exemplary. Bromiley states, “For versatility of expression and brilliance of imagery, Isaiah had no superior, not even a rival” (ISBE v2 885). Isaiah used disputations and courtroom speeches to drive the point home that God was powerful enough to restore his people and that his justice warranted the destruction of other nations in the face of Israel’s restoration. He spoke in moving terms how he would comfort and restore God’s people. Here is one example from Isaiah 44:3-4:

For I will pour water on the thirsty land,
and streams on the dry ground;

I will pour my Spirit upon your offspring,
and my blessing on your descendants.

They shall spring up among the grass
like willows by flowing streams.

Nahum

Nahum directed his message specifically against Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria. He began with a description of God as a divine warrior. Nahum described him as a jealous God and one who avenges injustice. He is a powerful God, who makes “mountains quake before him” (1:5) and says Nahum in 1:8, “he will make a complete end of the adversaries.”

Nahum explained why God’s judgment against Nineveh was just. The people of Nineveh plotted against the Lord, and he would bring their wickedness to an end. Nahum gave a vivid description of Nineveh’s destruction in 2:3-10. The shields of the soldiers attacking Nineveh will be red with blood. Chariots will storm through the streets like lightning. “Hearts melt,” says Nahum in 2:10, “and knees tremble; anguish is in all loins; all faces grow pale!”

But for Judah, there is comfort in the downfall of her enemy. Assyria will fall, and her torment of God’s people will end. The oppressor will become the oppressed. Nahum highlights this change from 2:11 to the end of the book. He sings taunt songs against Nineveh, describing the depth of the fall that Nineveh will experience and highlighting the splendor that the Lord will restore to Jacob.

The Babylonian judgment took place from 612–538 B.C. The prophetic books associated with the Babylonian judgment are Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Habakkuk, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Daniel, and possibly Joel.

Zephaniah

The focal point of Zephaniah’s message was on the coming of the Day of the Lord, which would bring judgment to some and blessing to others. The book presents this message in the form of two cycles (Pratt 1495).

The first cycle runs from 1:2–2:3. In this cycle, Zephaniah prophesied that a terrible judgment was coming where God said, “I will utterly sweep away everything from the face of the earth” (1:2). He prophesied against all the nations of the earth, but in particular, he proclaimed the Lord’s judgment against Judah. He proclaimed that the day of the Lord’s judgment was near and coming quickly. In the final three verses of this cycle, he also gave reason for hope when he said in 2:3. “Seek the Lord, all you humble of the land, who do his just commands; seek righteousness; seek humility; perhaps you may be hidden on the day of the anger of the Lord.”

Zephaniah’s second cycle followed a similar pattern. He elaborated on the coming judgment by naming specific nations and describing the disaster awaiting them. He even prophesied the destruction of Assyria by Babylon. He also talked about the future of Jerusalem in chapter 3. The Lord was preparing judgment for Jerusalem, but the judgment would be followed by a time of salvation for both Jews and Gentiles. God would purify all who called on the name of the Lord. He would take away their punishment and restore their fortunes.

Jeremiah

The prophecies in the book of Jeremiah are not recorded in chronological order (Sproul 1049), but other organizational patterns do not totally fit either. For our purposes, we will simply discuss the book of Jeremiah around five key themes: the case against Judah, the temple, false prophets, exile and restoration, and oracles against the nations.

The Case Against Judah

In chapter 2, the Lord, through Jeremiah, presented his case against the people of Judah and Jerusalem. He recounted all the ways that his people sinned against him, defiling themselves and the land. He repeated these charges and added to them throughout the book of Jeremiah. In chapters 34–36, Jeremiah described specific kinds of sins that brought judgment on Judah. The people held Hebrew slaves in disobedience to the law. When Jehoiakim, the king, was confronted with Jeremiah’s prophecies, rather than heeding the warnings, he burnt the scroll piece by piece in the fire. Even the Rechabites, who were not Hebrew, were more righteous than the people of Judah.

The Lord made clear in chapters 14, 17, and other places that Judah deserved to feel his wrath and be sent into exile. God had as much right to treat Israel this way as a potter does when the clay he is working with becomes misshapen and useless (18:6-10). Jeremiah called the people of Judah to heed his warnings and forestall the judgment that Babylon would bring, but they would not listen.

The Temple

Instead, the people of Judah mistakenly believed that Babylon would not be able to conquer Jerusalem because it was the location of God’s temple. In chapters 7–10, Jeremiah dispelled their mistaken belief. The temple alone would not save the people of Israel because they had abandoned faithfulness and repentance, which were the hallmarks of true religion in Israel. Jeremiah called the people of Israel back to true faithfulness in 7:5-7:

“For if you truly amend your ways and your deeds, if you truly execute justice one with another, if you do not oppress the sojourner, the fatherless, or the widow, or shed innocent blood in this place, and if you do not go after other gods to your own harm, then I will let you dwell in this place, in the land that I gave of old to your fathers forever.”

False Prophets

The people had deceived themselves, speaking lies to their neighbors and following the words of false prophets. It prompted Jeremiah to warn in 9:4-6

“Let everyone beware of his neighbor,
and put no trust in any brother,
for every brother is a deceiver,
and every neighbor goes about as a slanderer

Everyone deceives his neighbor,
and no one speaks the truth;
they have taught their tongue to speak lies;
they weary themselves committing iniquity

Heaping oppression upon oppression, and deceit upon deceit,
they refuse to know me, declares the Lord.”

Jeremiah also fought directly against the false prophets. In chapter 23, he cried out with a broken heart when he looked at the lies the false prophets were spreading. In chapters 25–29, he predicted a lengthy exile, which the false prophets rejected. They threatened Jeremiah with death and directly contradicted his prophecies. Even the king and his officials vehemently rejected Jeremiah’s words. At one point, in chapter 36, Jehoiakim burnt Jeremiah’s scroll as it was read to him. And in chapters 37–38, he was thrown into prison and then into a cistern.

Exile and Restoration

But Jeremiah continued to prophesy. His prophecies focused on the coming exile and the eventual restoration of God’s people. In chapter 3 and elsewhere, Jeremiah proclaimed that Judah’s sins were even worse than Israel’s and would inevitably lead to their exile. It was so certain that in chapter 16, Jeremiah explained that he did not marry because it would be useless to have sons or daughters in a land that would soon be destroyed. In chapter 39, Jeremiah described the fulfillment of his prophecies against Jerusalem. The city fell, and the people were taken into captivity. Chapters 40:1–45:5 record a sequence of important events that took place after the fall of Jerusalem.

But Jeremiah also proclaimed restoration for God’s people. Even before Jerusalem fell, in chapters 30–33, Jeremiah reaffirmed the promise that God’s people would return from captivity. And afterward, when God’s people went into exile, in chapter 52, Jeremiah gave evidence of future blessing that could be seen in events that took place in Babylon.

Oracles Against the Nations

Jeremiah declared numerous prophecies against other nations. Chapters 46–51 record a series of oracles against the nations surrounding Israel. The nations included Egypt, Philistia, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Syria, Kedar, Hazor, Elam, and Babylon. The last nation, Babylon, received the most significant treatment, taking up all of chapters 50–51. Jeremiah declared the utter devastation and judgment that was coming. Babylon may have been used by God to bring punishment to his people, but that does not mean it would escape its own judgment from God. In some sense, this would come as a comfort to God’s people, knowing that judgment for Babylon would someday come just as surely as redemption and restoration would come for God’s people.

Lamentations

As its title implies, Lamentations is a series of five laments over the destruction of Jerusalem. These laments can be described as follows (Pratt 1290):

- Chapter 1 is a lament over Zion, which lies devastated with no comfort.

- Chapter 2 is a lament over the Lord's anger against Judah.

- Chapter 3 is a lament and consolation on behalf of the people of Judah.

- Chapter 4 is a lament that appeals to God for deliverance in the present and in the future.

- Chapter 5 is a lament that appeals to God for help.

These five laments express three distinct but harmonious perspectives on the Babylonian judgment. The first perspective was an acknowledgment of God’s righteous judgment over Judah. The people of Judah deserved to be exiled because of their sin. Throughout Judah’s history, the prophets had warned that exile would come if the people persisted in their sin. Lamentations acknowledged that the day of reckoning for Judah finally came. A second perspective acknowledged that the consequences of Judah’s sin were horrific. The author of Lamentations expressed deep anguish over the pain the people of Judah had to endure and wondered out loud whether it was right of God to behave as an enemy to his own people. A third perspective affirmed that God was still merciful and faithful. The author expressed his faith that one day the exile would end, that Judah’s guilt would be satisfied, and that Judah’s enemies would be judged for the crimes they committed against her (Pratt 1289).

Habakkuk

Habakkuk provides us with an unusual prophetic oracle, since it is not delivered to the people or a nation, but rather shows Habakkuk twice complaining to God and ending with a prayer to God. In his first complaint, Habakkuk saw that wickedness in Judah was increasing, but he did not see God doing anything about it. God responded by saying that he was preparing to send the Babylonians to sweep across the land. When Habakkuk heard the Lord’s response, he complained that the Babylonians were even more wicked than the people of Judah. God’s response seemed worse than doing nothing at all Habakkuk could not understand how God could use barbarians like the Babylonians to execute his justice (ISBE v2 (583-84). But God responded to Habakkuk’s second complaint by promising that Babylon, too, would one day be destroyed. In fact, when it comes to God’s sovereignty, he rules the world and will control it to his ends. As he said in 2:20, “the Lord is in his holy temple; let all the earth keep silence before him.” In the end, Habakkuk prayed to God, expressing his trust that God would keep his promises and promising to praise God even in difficult circumstances (Longman and Dillard 468). Habakkuk put it this way in 3:17-19,

Though the fig tree should not blossom
nor fruit be on the vies,
the produce of the olive fail
and the fields yield no food,
the flock be cut off from the fold
and there be no herd in the stalls,
yet I will rejoice in the Lord,

I will take joy in the God of my salvation.

God, the Lord, is my strength;
he makes my feet like the deer’s
he makes me tread on my high places.

Ezekiel

Ezekiel spans a time from before Babylon’s destruction of Jerusalem to a time when the people were settled in their captivity. It can be divided into three sections: Judgment on Judah and Jerusalem, Oracles Against Foreign Nations, and Blessing for Judah and Jerusalem (Longman and Dillard 362-3).

Judgment on Judah and Jerusalem (Ezek. 1–24)

In chapters 1–24, Ezekiel proclaimed God’s judgment against Judah and Jerusalem at the hand of the Babylonians. This section is made up of two smaller sections, each with a similar organization including a vision and commission, a description of symbolic acts Ezekiel was asked to perform, and related speeches (Pratt 1306). Space prevents us from describing all the visions and events of these chapters, but here are some highlights:

Just as Moses, Gideon, Isaiah, and Jeremiah inaugurated their prophetic careers with an experience of God’s divine and awesome presence, so too Ezekiel had an inaugural vision of God in his awesome glory coming on his chariot and ready for war. Ezekiel’s vision was an apocalyptic vision of God coming in judgment. The chariot in the vision was surrounded by a cloud filled with brilliant light and flashing lightning all around. Inside the cloud was a fire, and inside the fire was God’s chariot with four living creatures on four wheels that could move in any direction. Above them was an expanse, and above the expanse was a throne, like sapphire, and on the throne was a figure like that of a man. This presence will appear again in Ezekiel’s visions. In chapter 10, Ezekiel had a vision of the glory of the Lord, symbolized by his chariot departing from the temple, showing that God’s special presence with his people was being withdrawn.

Ezekiel’s prophecies also included many symbolic acts. In chapters 4–5, Ezekiel was told to symbolize the siege of Jerusalem by drawing the city on a clay tablet and laying siege to it. He was told to lie on his left side for 390 days and then on his right side for another 40, representing the years of the sins of Israel and Judah. He was told to eat defiled bread that had been baked on manure to symbolize how Israel would eat defiled food in their exile. And he was told to cut off his hair and divide it into three piles, burning one third, striking a third with a sword, and throwing a third to the wind, only saving a few strands in the fold of his garment, demonstrating the severity of God’s judgment on Jerusalem.

In addition to visions and symbolic actions, Ezekiel spoke to the people. Sometimes he spoke to the people with words directly from the Lord, as in 5:8, when he said, “therefore thus says the Lord God: Behold, I, even I, am against you. And I will execute judgments in your midst in the sight of the nations.” Sometimes he spoke in parables, as in the parable of the useless vine in chapter 15, making the point that like a useless vine, Jerusalem was good for nothing more than to be thrown into the fire. At other times he used an allegory to make his point, as in chapter 16, when he described Jerusalem as he would describe an unwanted baby that he found and cared for, and that rejected him even after all his care. Ezekiel also spoke in laments, as he did in a lament concerning the princes of Israel in chapter 19. Through these many and varied speeches, Ezekiel drove home the point that the people of Judah were a rebellious people, fully deserving the punishment that was planned for them.

Oracles Against Foreign Nations (Ezek. 25–32)

In chapters 25–32, Ezekiel gave a measure of comfort to the people of Judah by proclaiming oracles against some of the nations that had troubled Judah. He proclaimed oracles against Ammon, Moab Seir, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt. Tyre and Egypt received the most attention. Some scholars have noted the details that Ezekiel included in his oracles against Tyre and Egypt and have suggested that he spent some time in both places. (ISBE v2 254-5). Notably missing from this collection of oracles is the nation of Babylon.

Blessing for Judah and Jerusalem (Ezek. 33–48)

Chapters 33–48 were written after the temple was destroyed when Ezekiel focused on the restoration of the people and the rebuilding of the temple. Like the first section, this section also can be divided into two smaller sections, the first dealing with Judah’s fall and restoration and the second focusing specifically on the restoration of Jerusalem (Pratt 1307). Here are some highlights:

When Judah fell and was taken into captivity, the people felt as if they had died. They asked themselves in 33:10, “Surely our transgressions and our sins are upon us, and we rot away because of them. How then can we live?” But even here, at Judah’s lowest point, God did not abandon his people. He still had plans for them. He confirmed this in chapter 33 when he commissioned Ezekiel to serve as a watchman for his people. He warned the people not to discount his words, but to do them. He also warned the leaders of the people in chapter 34 that as the shepherds of Israel, they would be held responsible for the scattering of the sheep.

But in marvelous words of hope, Ezekiel also gave the people a picture of God’s plan to restore them. In chapter 37, Ezekiel compared the people of Israel to a valley filled with dry bones. Remarkably, miraculously, God took those dry bones and slowly fit them back together, adding tendons and flesh, and finally adding the breath of life. So, too, he told his people in verse 14, “I will put my Spirit within you, and you shall live, and I will place you in your own land. Then you shall know that I am the Lord; I have spoken, and I will do it, declares the Lord.”

In chapters 40–48, God got even more specific about his plans for restoration. Through visions, he showed Ezekiel his plans for a new temple in chapters 40–42. He showed him the glory of the Lord returning to the temple in chapter 43, and the restoration of faithful worship in chapters 44–46. Then he showed them something even more spectacular. A river would flow from the temple and would grow deeper and deeper, bringing life to everything in its path. God’s people would know life in the Lord as they had never known it before, and that life would spread to the world.

Obadiah

Obadiah paid particular attention to the Edomites, the descendants of Esau and neighbors to Israel. Obadiah’s words were addressed directly to Edom, but they were intended for Judah’s hearing and benefit (Sproul 1284). Obadiah said the Lord would not overlook the cruelties of the Edomites toward his people, but he would certainly destroy them. Obadiah’s words of warning to the Edomites showed how the destruction of Edom fit into God’s larger plan for judging all nations and blessing his people. The Lord would reign over all, as Obadiah said in verse 21, “...the kingdom shall be the Lord’s.”

Daniel

The book of Daniel confirmed that Judah’s exile would be extended for a long period of time, through four kingdoms. Daniel encouraged repentance and faith from the exiles and warned that continued rebellion would only prolong the exile. The book can be divided into two sections: the narratives and the visions (Sproul 1211).

The first six chapters in Daniel record six historical narratives:

- The vindication of Daniel and his friends in chapter 1

- Nebuchadnezzar's first dream in chapter 2
- Deliverance from the furnace in chapter 3
- Nebuchadnezzar's second dream in chapter 4
- Judgment on Belshazzar in chapter 5

- And deliverance from the den of lions in chapter 6

The narratives were written to show that God is the sovereign ruler over all nations and that Daniel and his friends were exalted in Babylon only because God blessed them in their faithfulness. God maintained control over the nations, and he maintained control over the lives of Daniel and his three friends (Pratt 1375).

The remaining six chapters record the following four visions of Daniel:

- The vision of the four beasts in chapter 7

- The vision of the ram and the goat in chapter 8

- The vision of the seventy weeks in chapter 9

- And the vision of the future of God's people in chapters 10 through 12

These visions contain predictions of the future that would prepare God’s people for a time of severe persecution when they would be called to live out the truths contained in chapters 1 through 6. Daniel prophesied about kingdoms of the world still to come that would persecute God’s people, culminating in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, who systematically tried to eradicate the Jewish religion and force the Jews to conform to Greek religious practices. When that time came, the lessons learned from Danial would be crucial. Even during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, God remained the sovereign ruler over all nations. And God’s people, who remained faithful in the midst of intense persecution, would be blessed (Pratt 1375).

Joel

Joel was probably written to be used as a liturgical guide during a time of judgment. Joel gave detailed descriptions of a locust plague and drought that emphasized the devastating destruction that would come on the day of the Lord’s judgment. He called the people to wake up and wail in the face of such destruction. But most of all, he called the people to repent (Sproul 1256-7). As he said in 2:13:

“…rend your hearts and not your garments.

Return to the Lord your God
for he is gracious and merciful,
slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love;
and he relents over disaster.”

If the people would repent, the Lord would indeed respond. He would take pity on his people and would again dwell in Zion. Jerusalem would be holy, and Judah would be inhabited forever.

Three prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi ministered during the return from exile and left a written record of their work.

Haggai

The book of Haggai consists of four messages that alternate between a call to repentance and a promise of blessing (Pratt 1503). Haggai’s first message was most likely delivered at a public gathering that included the leaders and the people near the area of the temple ruins (Longman and Dillard 480-81). Haggai reminded the people that they had found time to build their own houses, but the temple still lay in ruins. He called them to repent of their neglect of the temple. God required that he be honored, and the people, in their neglect of rebuilding the temple, showed that they lacked a desire for God's presence with them.

Haggai’s second message came less than a month after the work on the temple began (Longmans and Dillard 481). Haggai assured the people that no matter how incomplete and inferior the temple might look, God would be pleased to dwell there. The Lord Almighty would shake all the nations, but where he dwelt with his people, there he would grant peace.

Haggai’s third and fourth messages were both delivered on the same day (Longman and Dillard 481). In his third message, Haggai reminded the people that they were defiled in the land and, as a result, had not been blessed. But it ended with an assurance from God saying in 2:19, “From this day on I will bless you.” Haggai's final message was an announcement of a great victory over the nations for Zerubbabel. Although the great victory did not come in Zerubbabel’s day, it would come for another descendant in David’s line: Jesus Christ (Sproul 1323).

Zechariah

The book of Zechariah can be divided into two sections. The first section contains prophecies of immediate significance, and the second section contains prophecies regarding the future (Sproul 1327).

In chapters 1–8, Zechariah proclaimed that great blessing would come if the people would rebuild the temple. The people responded to Zechariah’s call with repentance. Zechariah had eight visions that displayed the importance of Zerubbabel and Joshua in God’s plan for the people who returned. He recounted the reasons for Judah’s exile and presented God’s offer of great blessings to the returnees if they would turn from their hypocrisies (Pratt 1509).

In chapters 9–14, Zechariah included prophecies regarding the future of the restored community. One group of oracles revealed that God would bring blessings to Jerusalem through David’s royal line. A second revealed the complex process by which God would keep his promises to his people despite their continued failures. Full restoration could come only by catastrophic, future, divine intervention. (Pratt 1509)

Malachi

Malachi proclaimed that great judgment was still awaiting those who remain unfaithful, but a final, great restoration was also in store for God’s people who remained faithful to the covenant (Sproul 1343). The book begins with an affirmation of God’s special love for the people of Israel, despite all the troubles they have experienced. Their trouble came because of their unfaithfulness. The nation of Israel was in serious rebellion against God. The priests showed contempt for God’s name by corrupting worship and neglecting the law. The people had broken faith by violating God’s gift of marriage.

But God, in his special love for his people, would not let them remain in their sin. He was determined to judge his people in righteousness. Despite appearances, Israel could be sure that God would send the Messiah to judge and purify his people. God still offered Israel the opportunity to repent and receive his blessing. Faithful service to God was of paramount importance because the righteous and wicked would be distinguished by divine judgment in the future (Pratt 1526-7).

Application

While each passage in the prophets demands its own application, we can make general comments regarding the application of the prophetic books in our lives. We will focus on three areas: judgment and repentance, restoration and hope, and the salvation of the nations.

Judgment and Repentance

Throughout the prophets, God warned of the Day of the Lord, a time when all those who do evil finally will be stopped (ISBE v1 879). The Lord Almighty will come again to dispense his just punishment. This is as true for people today as it was in the time of the prophets. The prophets showed God’s acts of divine justice in his judgments against the nations. Many of these judgments were carried out in the prophets’ lifetimes. Others are still awaiting their ultimate fulfillment when Jesus Christ comes again. The prophets also showed God’s acts of divine justice in his judgments against his people, ultimately sending them into exile. God does not give his people a free pass. They, too, are held accountable for their sin.

The only escape from God’s just judgment is to repent and turn from evil. And the prophets called for repentance from all those who do evil. We know that true repentance can only come through faith in Jesus Christ, but that does not take away the need for repentance. The prophets made sure that all people past and present know just how much God hates evil and demands repentance. Ultimately this means turning to Jesus Christ in the repentance he brings through the Holy Spirit.

Restoration and Hope

The prophets also gave us a picture of restoration and hope. In fact, nearly every prophetic book ends with a message of hope. But the hope the prophets bring is no ordinary hope. It is a hope that is based on God and his promises. The restoration of God’s people depended on God’s mercy and grace. He was their hope for the future.

Again, the prophets declared the Day of the Lord, but for God’s people, the Day of the Lord would be a joyous occasion (ISBE v1 879). It would be a time when those who put their faith in God would be vindicated. It would be a day when they realized their faith in God was warranted. The prophets showcased God’s acts of divine mercy in the restoration and blessing he provided and continues to provide for his people (Pratt 1067). Ultimately, the prophetic expectations of restoration find their fulfillment in Jesus Christ, in his first coming and ultimately, when he comes again to restore all things. The prophets encouraged God’s people both in their day and in ours to remain steadfast in their hope in the Lord. The Lord would not disappoint then. He will not disappoint now.

The Salvation of the Nations

We can also see that the prophets were concerned about the salvation of the nations, an emphasis that went beyond the nation of Israel. The book of Jonah lays the primary emphasis on God’s concern for the salvation of other nations besides Israel (Sproul 1286). God told Jonah to prophesy to Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria. He reprimanded Jonah when Jonah became angry at their repentance. God made sure Jonah knew that he had every right to care for Nineveh and would do so at his pleasure.

Jonah was not the only prophet who emphasized God’s concern for the nations. Here are a few excerpts from other prophets:

“‘For I know their works and their thoughts, and the time is coming to gather all nations and tongues. And they shall come and shall see my glory, and I will set a sign among them. And from them I will send survivors to the nations, to Tarshish, Pul, and Lud, who draw the bow, to Tubal and Javan, to the coastlands far away, that have not heard my fame or seen my glory. And they shall declare my glory among the nations. And they shall bring all your brothers from all the nations as an offering to the Lord, on horses and in chariots and in litters and on mules and on dromedaries, to my holy mountain Jerusalem,’ says the Lord, ‘just as the Israelites bring their grain offering in a clean vessel to the house of the Lord’” (Isaiah 66:18-20).

“’I will shake all nations, so that the treasures of all nations shall come in, and I will fill this house with glory,’ says the Lord of hosts’” (Haggai 2:7).

“And the Lord will be king over all the earth. On that day the Lord will be one and his name one” (Zechariah 14:9).

As we have seen, the prophets not only serve to warn God’s people of the consequences of sin, they also remind us of the glorious hope we have, a hope that is founded not on what we do, but on the grace and mercy of our God, the sovereign king of all the nations and the savior of mankind. One day, the Lord’s reign will be recognized by all nations throughout the earth. The Lord will gather his very own from all the peoples of the earth, and his name will be glorified. That was the hope of the prophets. It is our hope, too.

Works Consulted

Bartholomew, Craig G. and David J. H. Beldman. Hearing the Old Testament: Listening for God’s Address. Eerdmans, 2012.

Briggs, Richard S. and Joel N. Lohr. A Theological Introduction to the Pentateuch: Interpreting the Torah as Christian Scripture. Baker Academic, 2012.

Bright, John. A History of Israel. Third Edition. Westminster Press, 1981.

Bromiley, Geoffrey W., gen. ed. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Revised Edition. Four Volumes. Eerdmans, 1979.

Calvin, John, and James Anderson. Commentary on the Book of Psalms. Vol. 1. Logos Bible Software, 2010.

Calvin John. Commentaries on the Twelve Minor Prophets. John Owen, trans. Logos Bible Software, n.d.

Childs, Brevard S. Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments. Fortress Press, 1993.

De Graaf, S. G. Promise and Deliverance: The Failure of Israel’s Theocracy. Volume 2. Paideia Press, 1978.

_____. Promise and Deliverance: From Creation to the Conquest of Canaan. Volume 1. Paideia Press, 1977.

Dockery David S., gen. ed. Holman Bible Handbook. Holman Bible Publishers, 1992.

Exell, J. S. Homiletical Commentary on the Book of Exodus. London: Richard D. Dickinson, Farringdon Street, 1879.

Greidanus, Sidney. Preaching Christ from Ecclesiastes: Foundations for Expository Sermons. Eerdmans, 2010.

_____. Preaching Christ from the Old Testament: A Contemporary Hermeneutical Method. Eerdmans, 1999.

Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Eerdmans, 1969.

Jensen, Irving L. Simply Understanding the Bible. World Wide Publications, 1990.

Keil, C. F. and F. Delitzsch. Commentary on the Old Testament. Hendrickson Publishers. Reprinted from the English edition published by T and T Clark, 1866-91.

Knowles, Andrew. The Bible Guide. Augsburg, 2001.

Longman, Tremper III. How to Read Exodus. InterVarsity Press, 2009.

_____. How to Read Genesis. InterVarsity Press, 2005

_____. How to Read Proverbs. InterVarsity Press, 2002.

_____. How to Read the Psalms, InterVarsity Press 1988.

_____. Reading the Bible with Heart and Mind. NavPress, 1997.

Longman, Tremper III and Raymond B. Dillard. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Zondervan, 2006.

McKenzie, Steven L. Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading. Eerdmans, 2010.

Moseley, Allan. From the Study to the Pulpit: An 8-Step Method for Preaching and Teaching the Old Testament. Lexham Press, 2017

Poythress, Vern S. The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses. P&R Publishing, 1991.

Pratt, Richard L., gen. ed. Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible. Zondervan, 2003.

Redditt, Paul L. Introduction to the Prophets. Eerdmans, 2008.

Ryken, Leland. How Bible Studies Work: A Guided Study of Biblical Narrative. Vol. 1. Reading the Bible as Literature. Lexam Press, 2015

_____. Short Sentences Long Remembered: A Guided Study of Proverbs and Other Wisdom Literature. Vol. 6. Reading the Bible as Literature. Lexam Press, 2016.

_____. Sweeter than Honey, Richer than Gold: A Guided Study of Biblical Poetry. Vol. 2. Reading the Bible as Literature. Lexam Press, 2015.

_____. Symbols and Reality: A Guided Study of Prophecy, Apocalypse, and Visionary Literature. Vol. 5. Reading the Bible as Literature. Lexam Press, 2016.

Sproul, R. C., gen. ed. The Reformation Study Bible. Ligonier Ministries, 2005.

Walton, John H. and Tremper Longman III. How to Read Job. InterVarsity Press, 2015.

Whybray, R. N. Introduction to the Pentateuch. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1995.

Notes

[←1]

For an interesting discussion on the two types of law, see Whybray, Introduction to the Pentateuch, pp. 110-115.

[←2]

For a helpful discussion of the Mosaic authorship of Genesis see Longman, How to Read Genesis, pp. 43-57.

[←3]

For a more detailed explanation of Gideon’s story, see De Graaf, S. G. Promise and Deliverance. Volume II, pp. 21-30.

[←4]

For a detailed discussion of distinctive themes within 1 and 2 Chronicles, see McKenzie, pp. 119-23.

[←5]

For an interesting discussion on why this happened see Longman and Dillard, 229. They make the point that Job was suffering, and people who are suffering are not necessarily logically consistent.

[←6]

For a detailed description of the parallels between Jonah 1–2 and Jonah 3–4 see Table 4 in G. W. Bromiley, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, v. 2, p. 1114.