Date: 2020-08-21T19:31:42+00:00
Keywords: BS: Christianity: The Bible; Old and New Testament
Description: New Testament Books Books of the Bible Literary Genres of the Bible

The Books of the New Testament

Norlan De Groot

Copyright © 2020 Norlan De Groot

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are taken from the English Standard Version, 2001, 2007.

ISBN: 9781099170317

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Contents

Preface

1 The Gospels

2 Acts

3 The Pauline Epistles

4 The General Epistles

5 Revelation

Works Consulted

Preface

The books of the New Testament were written during a period that lasted a little over 50 years. They record the history of Jesus’ ministry on earth and the expansion of the church after Christ’s ascension. Many of the epistles give us a better understanding of the early church and provide a solid foundation for Christian theology. These books also include many literary genres from stories, parables, songs, epistles, poetry, apocalyptic literature, and much more. This book gives a brief overview of the literature found in the New Testament and summarizes the content of each of the New Testament books. It also makes some general comments about how to apply these books in today’s world.

1

The Gospels

The New Testament begins with four books called gospels. When these books were first written, however, they did not have that designation, only receiving it toward the end of the first century or early in the second century. The gospel writers, themselves, only used the term “gospel” to refer to the act of proclaiming the good news of Jesus Christ, or the content of the proclamation (Carson and Moo 112).

The good news that the gospels proclaimed was the inauguration of the kingdom of God. Early in his ministry, Jesus Christ proclaimed this message when he said in Mark 1:15, “the time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent and believe in the gospel.” The emphasis of the first four books of the New Testament is on this good news.

Background

The unique approach that the first four books of the New Testament took in presenting the good news of Jesus Christ has been called the “gospel genre.” In a very real sense, it is unique in the history of literature, since it presents the good news that only Jesus could bring, showing his life and ministry, retelling what he said, and describing what he did to reconcile the world to himself.

In describing Jesus’ life and ministry, the gospels show that they are historical, presenting events that actually happened in history. But the history presented in the gospels is history with a purpose. Jesus Christ came to save those who were lost. His ministry was always directed toward that end. The four gospels mirror that same purpose. They show a progression in the life of Jesus from his ministry in Galilee and the surrounding area to his movement toward Judea and Jerusalem, and ultimately to his death on the cross for our sins and his resurrection unto new life. The gospels do not tell us this information just to satisfy our curiosity. They tell us about Jesus so that we might believe.

Genres and Literary Forms

The subject matter and the purpose of the gospels make clear that they form their own unique gospel genre. However, in writing their gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John used common literary tools that were available to them. We can enhance our understanding of these books and the gospel genre in general when we look at some of these additional genres and literary forms that the authors included in their witness to the life and ministry of Jesus Christ.

Historical Narrative

Leland Ryken calls the narrative genre the primary literary form of the gospels (Leland Ryken, Hero 23). A narrative is simply a story. A historical narrative is a story that happened in history. Each gospel is a collection of historical narratives from Jesus’ life. The stories have many common story elements, including plot, characters, and setting. The storylines involve conflict, crisis, and resolution. However, the collected stories are not merely chronologies of Jesus’ life from beginning to end. At times, the gospel writers arranged their narratives along thematic lines. At other times, they grouped their stories geographically. Ryken explains that the gospels fall into a story type known as an episodic plot (Leland Ryken, Hero 15). Instead of flowing around a single plotline, they are collections of stories, or episodes, organized around Jesus, the protagonist.

Throughout these stories, Jesus is portrayed as inaugurating his kingdom with power. He is shown exercising power over the physical world by healing all forms of disease, raising people from the dead, and otherwise displaying his power over the physical world. He also exercised power over the spiritual world, casting out demons with a mere word from his mouth and resisting the direct temptations of Satan.

One unique type of historical narrative that occurs in all four gospels is the passion narrative, which records Jesus’ suffering, death, and resurrection. These narratives have “a distinctive feel that makes them different from the rest of the gospels” (Leland Ryken, Hero 67). The passion stories are unique in that they describe an atmosphere of tragedy, but in reality, the Lord used it to proclaim victory over sin and death and hell. J. R. R. Tolkien called it a “eucatastrophe” (Leland Ryken, Hero 77), in other words, a “good catastrophe.”

While historical narrative is the primary genre of the gospels, other literary forms are also present. The following literary forms are some of the main forms. Others could be listed. These examples could be called separate genres, but in the gospels, they are mixed throughout the overall narrative. For our purposes, it is important to recognize that these literary forms have their own unique place within the gospel genre.

Sermons

Throughout his ministry on earth, Jesus taught the people. The gospel writers recorded his teaching. At times he taught directly by way of sermons, as he did in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7. In these expository sections, Jesus normally stated a thesis and then continued by describing, explaining, or proving the thesis. For example, in Matthew 5:17, Jesus said, “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them.” Then, he spent the next several verses explaining what he meant:

“For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the Law until all is accomplished. Therefore, whoever relaxes one of the least of these commandments and teaches others to do the same will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever does them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. For I tell you, unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.” (Matt. 5:18-20)

In longer sermons, like the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus introduced many topics in the course of the sermon. But even here, the topics generally have an overall theme that connects them to each other.

Parables

Closely related to sermons are the parables of Jesus, which are stories that were meant to teach aspects of the kingdom of God to those who had ears to hear. Ryken describes parables as having “a surface simplicity and hidden complexity” (Leland Ryken, Hero 97). Another way to describe parables is to call them stories that use common, everyday settings, people, and actions to teach spiritual truths. In a sense, that gives them allegorical characteristics. Much ink has been spilled denouncing allegorical interpretations of Scripture. From the New Testament church’s earliest beginnings, allegorical interpretations of parables flourished—many of which had no connection to the original meaning intended by Jesus (Stein 42-52). For the most part, these allegorical interpretations are in error, and the denunciations of them are helpful. We should avoid interpreting Scripture allegorically in a way that assigns meaning to the elements of a story that the original author did not intend. However, in their zeal to stamp out the errors of allegorical interpretation, many theologians have denied any allegory in parables. (Leland Ryken, Hero 101-2) This is an overcorrection. An allegory is simply a story with two meanings: a surface meaning and a deeper meaning. In an allegory, characters, settings, objects, and other story elements all stand for something else at a deeper level. This is exactly what parables do. In fact, with the parable of the sower, Jesus explained the purpose of the parable to his disciples by assigning deeper meanings to all the various elements (see Matt. 13: 18-23; Mark 4:10-20; Luke 8:9-15).

One way to know if you are correctly interpreting the allegorical characteristics of a parable is to look at how Jesus introduced the parable. Often, he would say something like, “the kingdom of heaven is like…” When he does that, he sets the boundaries of what is an acceptable interpretation and what is not. We should also note that not all parables have the same level of allegorical characteristics. The parable of the sower is highly allegorical, but the parable of the good Samaritan is less so.

Dialogue

The gospel writers recorded many conversations that Jesus had with individuals and groups. Dialogues like this were rarely recorded in the classical rhetoric of the day (Leland Ryken Hero 44-5), but they serve a unique purpose within the gospels. Some of the formal teaching in the gospels, like sermons or parables, followed an organized, logical train of thought. Dialogues in the gospels work differently. They usually follow a fluid association of ideas loosely strung together. In literature, this is called stream of consciousness writing because it simply follows the mind as it jumps from one idea to the other (Leland Ryken, Hero 82-3). This allows for the reader of these dialogues to make connections between ideas that he or she normally would not have made. Despite the apparent randomness of the thoughts in a dialogue, there is always a unifying theme—a reason those random thoughts were put together in one conversation. Finding that reason can go a long way in understanding the text and applying it to our lives.

Prayers

The gospel writers noted many times when Jesus went off by himself to pray. Luke alone records nearly a dozen prayers of Jesus (Philip Ryken 567). Jesus took seriously his calling to intercede for those whom the Father gave him. Throughout the gospels, we find that Jesus would remove himself from the press of crowds to go off by himself to pray (Luke 5:16). At transitional times in his ministry, Jesus would pray. For example, Luke records that before Jesus called the twelve apostles, he spent time in prayer (Luke 6:12-16). In examining Jesus’ attitude toward prayer, it is obvious that he considered prayer vital to accomplish the work that he came to do. In Jesus, the disciples “saw a unique passion for prayer, with unusual zeal and unprecedented intimacy” (Philip Ryken 568).

At times, we simply are told that Jesus prayed, and we are not told the content of the prayer. However, the gospel writers did write down some of his prayers, like his high priestly prayer in John 17. When we look at the recorded prayers of Jesus, we find that they were, for the most part, simple prayers addressed to the Father. They did not include the flowery language popularized by the religious leaders of the day. They showed Jesus at his most vulnerable, pouring out his heart to the Father.

In a sense, the recorded prayers of Jesus serve the same purposes that they served the original disciples. They show us a very personal side of Jesus, and they serve as an example for us to use when we pray. We do not need the flowery language popular among some Christians. Rather, we can go to the Lord in the heartfelt simplicity of a child. Jesus taught his disciples to pray. By giving examples of his prayers in the gospels, Jesus also teaches us.

Prophecy

While the gospels in general and Matthew’s gospel, in particular, quoted the Old Testament to show how Jesus was a fulfillment of prophecy, we also can find Jesus making prophetic statements for the benefit of his followers. Jesus was both the fulfillment of prophecy and the proclaimer of prophecy.

Mark 13 and Matthew 24 are prime examples of Jesus' prophecy. These prophecies are more than just a prediction of what will happen in the future. The kingdom of Jesus Christ came with power, but it came in totally unexpected ways. Jesus would win the victory over sin and death, not by claiming an earthly kingdom, but by dying on the cross. His prophetic statements in Mark 13 and Matthew 24 build on that theme. We know that more is in store for the kingdom of Jesus Christ, but we can be certain that it will come at a time and in ways that we will not expect (Matt. 24:37-44).

Miracle Stories

Technically, miracle stories do not need to be included as a separate genre or literary form. They are simply events that happened within historical narratives. However, since the gospels include many miracles, and miracles are uncommon in the ordinary working out of history, it is good to mention them briefly. Miracles showed the radical inauguration of the kingdom that arrived with the ministry of Jesus Christ. They showed Christ’s power over the physical world. And they showed his compassion for people caught up in their own sin or the effects of a world marred by sin. Some miracles are described in detail. Others are simply mentioned. In any case, they have an effect within the gospels of showing Christ breaking into history with the radical good news of the kingdom.

Poetry and Proverb

The gospels contain both poetry and proverbs. Poetry makes extensive use of imagery, figures of speech, metaphors, similes, symbols, hyperbole, paradox, and other literary devices (Leland Ryken, Hero 112-16). Jesus also made use of these same literary devices to the extent that we can call his words poetic. Some of his speeches sound more like poems than sermons. For example, the Beatitudes in Matt. 5:2-12 can be read like a poem. The same can be said of the Beatitudes in Luke 6:20-23 and the pronouncement of woes that follows in Luke 6:24-26.

The gospels also quoted poetry from the Old Testament. Matthew made extensive use of Old Testament poetry to emphasize that Jesus came as the fulfillment of prophecy. We can see examples of this particularly in the beginning of Matthew in 1:23; 2:6, 18; 3:3; 4:4, 6 10, 15-16. Luke gives us examples of New Testament poetry at the beginning of his gospel in Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 2:14, 29-32. At other times, Jesus seems to be quoting some of the poetry of his day, as in Luke 7:32 or composing poetry himself. Matthew 7:7-8 is formatted in most Bibles as prose text, but it could just as easily be formatted as a poem. We can do the same with other passages from the gospels. John wrote with a very poetic style. Chapter 1 of his gospels reads like a poem.

In addition to poetry, the gospels also contain proverbs, which are short, memorable sayings that provide simple but profound insight into life. An example is found in Matthew 9:37, “The harvest is plentiful, but the laborers are few.” It reads like a poem, but it is simply a brief, insightful statement.

The Synoptic Problem

Matthew, Mark, and Luke share much in common, especially when contrasted with the Gospel of John. Many of the stories about Jesus and much of Jesus’ teaching are the same in Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and the stories are presented in a generally similar order. The vocabulary used is also similar. In fact, often, the words and sentences are exactly the same.

Because Matthew, Mark, and Luke share so much in common, they are often referred to as the Synoptic Gospels, which means gospels that share the same point of view. But on closer inspection, many differences appear. Some stories about Jesus appear in some of the Synoptics but not others. Sometimes the order of stories is different. There are also verbal differences between the stories. They have enough in common that it seems likely they relied on common sources. But it is very difficult to determine what kind of sources were used, whether they were written or oral sources, or both. It is also difficult to determine if one gospel was written first and if that gospel may have been used by the others as a source.

The questions raised by the Synoptic Gospels are so difficult that it makes you wonder whether it really matters if we find the answers or not. However, even this issue demands our attention. Here’s what Dr. Robert L. Thomas had to say in his book about the Synoptic Gospels:

“Some evangelicals say that the origins of the Synoptic Gospels are unimportant, that God's having inspired them makes them authoritative. Yet the matter is not quite so simple. How God inspired the Synoptics is also important, affecting the nature of the resultant products found in the three books” (12)

The synoptic problem is not new, and many have proposed solutions. Probably the best solution is to acknowledge that the Lord gave us four different perspectives on the life of Jesus Christ that function as the facets of a diamond. Each facet is an absolutely true representation of the diamond, but only when you see all the facets together does the true brilliance of the diamond show itself.

For a more theological answer, we can turn to Augustine. His solution works as well today as it did when he first proposed it. He said,

“It is quite likely that the evangelists believed they had a duty to tell things in the order in which God suggested them to their memory, at least in matters where the order in which they were reported in no way took from the truth and authority of the Gospel. For the Holy Spirit distributes gifts to each individually as he wills (1 Cor 12:11). He directed and ruled the minds of the saints [the sacred writers] to ensure that the books would have full authority' in bringing to their minds the things they should write, the Holy Spirit would allow each to plan his narrative as he thought fit and in such a way that anyone who reads it carefully and devoutly would be able to read it with God’s help” (Augustine 2, 21, 51).

Regardless of the problems posed by the Synoptics, we can be confident that the four gospels are trustworthy accounts of the life of Jesus Christ. And we know that the four accounts give us a much more complete picture of Jesus Christ than we would have if only one account existed. Above all, we know that the Lord himself inspired all four accounts, and he did so for very good reasons, even if we at times wrestle with our understanding of them.

The Intertestamental Period

Approximately 430 years passed between the time when Malachi penned the last book of the Old Testament to the time when Jesus Christ was born, ushering in the New Testament age. During this intertestamental period, many political, cultural, and social changes took place within Israel.

Political

In the time between the Old and New Testaments the land of Israel was ruled by four separate empires (see Bromiley v2, 874-78):

The Persian Period (450-330 BC): Persia controlled Judah, but the Jews were generally allowed to carry on their religious observances without interference.

The Hellenistic Period (330-166 BC): Alexander the Great conquered the Persian empire, which included Israel. Alexander allowed the Jews to observe their laws and gave them many privileges, but he also was keen to establish Hellenistic culture throughout the world. When Alexander died, his empire was divided between his generals. Two of the generals set up their own competing dynasties: the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria and Mesopotamia. When the Ptolemies controlled Palestine, the Jews were treated well. But when the Seleucids came to power in Palestine, the Jews suffered severe oppression when they resisted the Seleucids' attempts to force Hellenistic culture on them.

The Hasmonean Period (166-63 BC): The oppression of the Seleucids led to a Jewish revolt led by Mattathias and his five sons: Judas Maccabeus, Jonathan, Simon, John, and Eleazar. These men established the Hasmonean dynasty. With the death of Mattathias' last son Simon, the dynasty quickly devolved into a Hellenistic and oppressive regime.

The Roman Period (63 BC): The Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 B.C., putting an end to the Hasmonean dynasty, and making the Holy Land subject to Rome. Rome governed the land part of the time through princes and the rest of the time through Roman governors. At the time of Jesus’ birth, Herod the Great ruled the land.

Cultural

Much of what we know culturally about this time period comes from the literature it produced. Three collections of literature are particularly important (see Pratt 1534-5):

The Septuagint: The Septuagint is a translation of the Old Testament and some non-canonical books from Hebrew into Greek. It became the Bible for Jews living outside of Palestine who no longer spoke Hebrew. Later, it became the Bible of the early church.

The Apocrypha: The Apocrypha is a collection of books and additions to canonical books that, with the exception of 2 Esdras, were written during the intertestamental period. They are not considered canonical by protestant Christians. They hold no unique theological value and contain numerous historical and theological errors.

The Dead Sea Scrolls: A collection of literature discovered in 1947, the Dead Sea Scrolls contain copies of biblical books, apocryphal works, pseudepigrapha, and works associated with the sect that produced them. Some of the scrolls provide copies of the original biblical manuscripts that are 1,000 years closer to the originals than was previously known.

Social

During the intertestamental period, Jewish society experienced major changes. In part, these changes were due to political and cultural forces outside their control. But the greatest changes came from groups that arose within Judaism itself (see Pratt 1535).

The Diaspora: The dispersion of the Jews, which began in the exile and accelerated throughout the intertestamental period. The Jews outside the Holy Land concentrated their religious life on the synagogue and the study of the Torah. Early Christian missionaries first concentrated their efforts on the Jews of the diaspora.

The Sadducees: The Sadducees developed as a major party within Judaism during the intertestamental period. They were known as the temple party. The group was made up of aristocrats who were heavily influenced by Hellenism. Although few in number, they were politically powerful, controlling the high priesthood. They rejected all religious writings outside of the Torah, and they rejected any teaching, like the resurrection of the dead, that was not included in the Torah.

The Synagogue: Synagogue worship developed during the Babylonian exile, when Israel was destroyed as a nation, cut off from worshiping at the temple, and influenced by pagan religions. The exiles focused not on what they had lost, but on what remained. The nation was gone, but the law remained. The sacraments were gone, but personal piety remained, The sacrifices were gone, but prayer remained. When the remnant of Israelites returned from exile, they kept this new form of religious expression, including the center of this new religious expression: the synagogue. Synagogue worship could be practiced wherever the Torah could be carried, and its focus on personal piety and a relationship with God helped pave the way for the Christian Gospel.

The Pharisees: While the Sadducees were the party of the temple, the Pharisees were the party of the synagogue. Just as the synagogue changed the way God was worshipped since the days of Moses, so the Pharisees reinterpreted the law that Moses gave to enable Jews to live righteously in a world that was very different from the world of Moses’ day.

The Essenes: The Essenes were largely forgotten until the discovery of the Essene community at Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls it left behind. They stressed strict, legal observance of the law and prepared for an apocalyptic, final war between the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness.

The Time of the Gospels

The cultural and social developments that occurred within the intertestamental period remained in place during the time when the gospels were written. The political situation, however, continued to change. During this time, the land of Israel was governed by numerous rulers (see Sproul 1357).

Herod the Great: Herod the Great was king when Jesus was born, but died soon after. He was an Edomite and was well known for his many building projects, including the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.

Archelaus: Archelaus was the son of Herod the Great, but was an evil king and was banished after ten years on the throne.

Roman Governors and Prefects: After the banishment of Archelaus, Judea and Samaria were ruled by a series of Roman governors and prefects, including Pontius Pilate. This was the system of government in place during Jesus’ ministry.

Herod Antipas: Herod Antipas was another son of Herod the Great. He ruled over the land of Galilee in the north. He is briefly mentioned toward the end of the gospels of Matthew and Luke.

Herod Agrippa: A grandson of Herod the Great, Herod Agrippa overthrew Herod Antipas to become ruler of Galilee and Perea. Later, he was made ruler of Judea and Samaria as well. He is known for persecuting some of the apostles and suffering a painful death after being praised as a god (Acts 12:20-23).

Roman Governors: When Herod Agrippa died, the land again reverted to Roman governorships. The tensions between Jews and Romans increased until a Jewish revolt in A.D. 66 and the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70.

Authors and Dates

We do not have full biographies of any gospel writers. However, we can piece together some details of their lives by references from Scripture and from traditions that have been handed down through church history.

Matthew

Beginning in the early second century after Christ, Matthew was already mentioned among the church fathers as the author of the gospel that bears his name (Bromiley v3 281). Also called Levi, Matthew was one of the twelve disciples. He was a tax collector when Jesus called him (Matt. 9:9-13). The Gospel of Matthew is the only gospel to mention this fact, which could have been Matthew's way of stating personal details about himself in his gospel. As a tax collector, Matthew likely spoke Aramaic and Greek as well as Hebrew. This implies that he was well-educated. During the persecution of Christians under Herod Agrippa, Matthew is believed to have left Palestine and traveled to Cypress and North Africa. He is traditionally believed to have died as a martyr in Ethiopia, but a conflicting tradition claims he died a natural death (Bromiley v3 280). Matthew most likely wrote his gospel in Antioch, Syria, sometime between A.D. 60 and A.D. 70 (Pratt 1542).

Mark

The church fathers affirmed early in the history of the church that Mark, also known as John Mark, was the author of the Gospel of Mark (Bromiley v3 252). From Acts 12:12, we learn that Mark came from a relatively wealthy family, since the home of Mark’s mother, Mary, was large enough to host a gathering of people when Peter was imprisoned.

Mark may also have referred to himself in his gospel. In Mark 14:51-52, Mark mentioned a young man wearing a linen garment, who followed Jesus, but fled when soldiers seized him, leaving his linen garment behind. Mark came from a family that could afford linen garments, and since he is the only Gospel writer who mentions this young man, it is possible he knew this detail because he was the young man (Pratt 1631).

Mark accompanied Paul and Barnabas from Jerusalem to Antioch and then continued with them on their first missionary journey, but left them before the journey was completed. Paul considered him unfit for a second missionary journey, which led to a rift between Paul and Barnabas, with Barnabas taking Mark to Cyprus and Paul traveling through Asia Minor and Greece. Later Paul and Mark were reconciled (Acts 13:13; 15:36-41; 1 Tim. 4:11b).

Mark wrote his Gospel in Italy around A.D. 62-69 or earlier. He most likely composed it in Rome, where he was associated with the apostle Peter (Pratt 1598). Mark's association with Peter, and Peter's familiarity with the Gospel of Mark was confirmed early in church history by Eusebius of Caesarea. In the late second century, he wrote in his ecclesiastical history,

“And so greatly did the splendor of piety illumine the minds of Peter’s hearers that they were not satisfied with hearing once only, and were not content with the unwritten teaching of the divine gospel, but with all sorts of entreaties they besought Mark, a follower of Peter, and the one whose gospel is extant, that he would leave them a written monument of the doctrine which had been orally communicated to them. Nor did they cease until they had prevailed with the man, and had thus become the occasion of the written gospel which bears the name of Mark. And they say that Peter when he had learned, through a revelation of the Spirit, of that which had been done, was pleased with the zeal of the men, and that the work obtained the sanction of his authority for the purpose of being used in the churches” (Schaff 116).

Luke

Luke was a Gentile Christian, who is thought to have come from Antioch in Syria (Sproul 1451). He was not an eyewitness to the events he recorded. Rather, he acquired his information through research. He would have been an able researcher, having honed his researching skills in preparing for his career as a doctor. The apostle Paul identified Luke as a doctor and his dear friend in Colossians 4:14. Luke traveled with Paul on Paul’s second and third missionary journeys and, at times, even used the pronoun “we” to refer to himself and Paul in describing those journeys in the book of Acts.

Luke first wrote his gospel and then followed that with the book of Acts. Acts ends with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome but does not mention what happened to Paul when his imprisonment ended in A.D. 63. This means that Acts was likely written sometime prior to A.D. 64, with the Gospel of Luke being written even earlier. Luke probably wrote these books either from Rome or Achaia, a part of Greece.

John

Although the apostle John never identified himself as the author of the Gospel of John, he was almost certainly its author. Just as Mark probably gave personal details about himself in his gospel, so also John included personal details in his gospel, describing himself as “the disciple whom Jesus loved” on several occasions (John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20). Throughout the book, John showed a detailed knowledge of Jewish customs, festivals, and feasts. He also showed a detailed knowledge of the geography of the Holy Land. John wrote this gospel toward the end of his life, probably around A.D. 85-90. It was the last of the four gospels to be written and was the final eyewitness account of Jesus’ life. If early church tradition is correct, John wrote his gospel in Ephesus, where he was living (Carson and Moo 254).

Original Audiences

All four gospels cover the life of Christ, but they were written with different audiences in mind. At times, the gospel writers arranged their stories thematically to better communicate what they wanted their specific audience to hear. Knowing the original audience helps us better understand why the writers wrote and arranged these stories the way they did.

Matthew

The Gospel of Matthew was probably addressed to the church in Antioch, which was a Gentile city that had a large Jewish population. The Gospel of Matthew addresses itself to people with strong Jewish sentiments, but it also takes a very favorable view of the mission to the Gentiles (Sproul 1359-60).

Mark

The Gospel of Mark was probably intended for Gentile Christians in Rome and elsewhere. Mark did not assume that his audience was acquainted with Jewish customs and Semitic terms since many of them are explained in the text. However, Jewish followers of Christ would not have been excluded from his audience.

Luke

Luke dedicated both Luke and Act to Theophilus, whose name means “Lover of God” (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1) Theophilus was likely a committed Christian who wanted to learn more about Jesus Christ and the movement called “The Way” that arose after Christ. He could have been a patron of Luke, providing a living for Luke and enabling him to do research for his two books (Sproul 1557). Although the books are directed primarily to Theophilus, they are appropriate for all those who consider themselves lovers of God.

John

If John wrote his gospel in Ephesus, the most likely original audience would have been Ephesian Christians and Christians in other cities in Asia Minor. However, John did not specify a destination in his gospel, and it is probable that he intended his gospel to be distributed to the widest audience possible. In any case, John’s gospel is appropriate for study by all Christians in whatever part of the world or time period they live.

Content

Now that we have a background to the gospels, we can begin giving brief summaries of each of the books. We will pay particular attention to characteristics unique to each book and the main purpose the author had for writing the book.

Matthew

Unlike some of the other gospel writers, Matthew did not give a succinct verse that we can use to identify his purpose. However, he did repeatedly return to the topic of the kingdom of heaven, so his purpose must be related to that. Matthew wanted to inspire Christians to be faithful servants in the kingdom. He wanted to show them Jesus Christ, who was prophesied to be the ruler of the kingdom and who came to establish his kingdom as a fulfillment of God’s plan of redemption.

Matthew preserved large blocks of Jesus’ teaching in his gospel. He paid special attention to Jesus’ teaching about himself and the kingdom of heaven. Matthew’s gospel also has a distinct Hebrew tone. Matthew made frequent appeals to Jesus’ fulfillment of Old Testament hopes and expectations. He often mentioned witnesses to Jesus’ acts in twos. Matthew recorded two demoniacs, two blind men who were healed, etc. This is in keeping with the Old Testament law that required two witnesses. In writing about the Jewish leaders, he stressed their departure from what was promised and proclaimed in the Old Testament (Harrison 170-73).

Matthew is organized around five major discourses of Jesus that each end with “and when Jesus had finished” (Matt. 7:28, 11:1, 13:53, 19:1, 26:1). Preceding each discourse is a narrative that is related to the discourse. Surrounding all five discourses is a prologue at the beginning of the book and a section on the passion and resurrection of Jesus at the end.

Prologue (1:1–2:23)

Matthew began his gospel by giving an account of Jesus’ genealogy, birth, and early childhood. He demonstrated how early events in Jesus’ life fulfilled Old Testament prophecy about the coming Messiah. Four times in the first two chapters, Matthew reminded his readers that the events he just recounted happened in order to fulfill what was spoken of in the prophets (1:23; 2:6, 15, 18). Matthew also showed, through his account of the Magi from the east and Jesus’ flight to Egypt, that Jesus was not only the King of the Jews, but he was also the King of the Gentiles.

Announcing the Kingdom (3:1–7:29)

Chapters 3–7 form the next section of Matthew, where the coming of the kingdom is announced at the beginning of Jesus' ministry. Chapters 3-4 form the narrative portion, and chapters 5–7 form the discourse portion.

Narrative (3:1–4:25)

As Isaiah prophesied, John the Baptist came as “a voice of one calling in the desert, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.’” (Matt. 3:3b). John the Baptist established the focus of Jesus’ ministry when he declared in 3:2, “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” Later, Jesus’ authority as the messianic king was established through his baptism by John and God the Father’s voice from heaven, confirming Jesus’ sonship. Jesus showed himself to be deserving of his messianic role when, in chapter 4, he resisted Satan’s temptations in the wilderness, something that the children of Israel were unable to do.

Discourse (5:1–7:29)

The discourse for this section is called the Sermon on the Mount because Matthew recounted that Jesus delivered it on a mountainside. It is the first of the five great blocks of teaching that occur in Matthew and confirms Jesus as the divinely authorized lawgiver for the kingdom. When he delivered this sermon, Jesus was inaugurating his kingdom. He established principles of behavior that did not do away with the Old Testament laws but radically transformed them into a new kingdom ethic. He intended his disciples to obey this new ethic right away and proclaimed the transforming power of the kingdom that would enable his disciples to do so.

The Power of the Kingdom (8:1–10:42)

After announcing the kingdom, Jesus displayed the power of the kingdom by performing miracles as well as calling, empowering, and sending his disciples to do the same.

Narrative (8:1–9:38)

The narrative portion of this section occurs in chapters 8 and 9. Matthew recorded a long series of miracles performed by Jesus. Jesus healed a man with leprosy; he healed a centurion’s servant; he calmed a storm, healed a demon-possessed man, healed a paralytic, raised a dead girl to life, healed a sick woman, healed the blind, the mute and many others. Interspersed throughout these miracles are sections showing how Jesus called his disciples and empowered them to heal the sick. These miracles are not meant to be placed on a chronological timeline. In fact, they appear in a different order in Mark and Luke (Pratt 1556). Rather, Matthew stacked these miracles together and arranged them to best suit his purpose.

Discourse (10:1-42)

Jesus’ second major discourse is found in chapter 10, in which Jesus announced the mission of the kingdom. He told his disciples to spread the good news of the kingdom to the lost sheep of Israel and to demonstrate its power by also performing miracles under his authority (Matt 10:5-8). But Jesus warned his disciples that it would not always be easy since their participation in the kingdom would incite hatred and persecution from the world (Matt. 10:16-18).

The Expectations of the Kingdom (11:1–13:58):

Although Jesus ushered in his kingdom with power, it was a different kingdom than the Jewish leaders were expecting. In fact, even John the Baptist, who announced the coming of Jesus’ kingdom, was no longer certain if Jesus was the Messiah (Matt. 11:3). In chapters 11–13, Jesus challenged their expectations about the Messiah and the nature of his Kingdom.

Narrative (11:1–12:50)

Chapters 11 and 12 form the narrative portion of this section. Through his actions and words, Jesus refocused popular expectations about himself as the Messiah and John the Baptist as the Elijah who was to come announcing the Messiah (Pratt 1562).

Discourse (13:1-58)

Chapter 13 forms Jesus’ third major discourse. In it, Jesus used parables to explain that his kingdom would come over time and to encourage repentance and faithfulness for all those who desired to enter it. Matthew placed the parables of this discourse in a unique arrangement, alternating between positive and negative material (Pratt 1566). He also linked some of the parables thematically, such as the first three parables, which are linked to the concept of the “seed,” representing the message of the kingdom and the faith that results from those who take that message to heart.

Living under the Authority of the Kingdom (14:1–18:35)

In the previous section, Matthew showed how Jesus challenged traditional Jewish expectations of the kingdom. In chapters 14–18, Jesus established himself as the one who exercised authority in the kingdom. He performed miracles that demonstrated his authority as the Messiah. He left no doubt that life under his kingship was different from life in any other kingdom.

Narrative (14:1–17:27)

The narrative section in chapters 14–17 displayed Jesus’ authority by recording miracles he performed and the reactions of the people who witnessed them (Pratt 1570). Through his miracles, Jesus provided for his people by feeding the five thousand and the four thousand. He demonstrated his authority over nature by walking on water. He demonstrated his authority outside of Israel by healing the daughter of a non-Israelite. He even demonstrated his authority over the spiritual world when he healed a boy who was possessed by a demon. Peter recognized Jesus’ authority when he confessed that Jesus indeed was the Christ. God himself confirmed it when Jesus was transfigured before Peter, James, and John, and God proclaimed, “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him” (Matt. 17:5b) But the Jewish leaders did not recognize Jesus’ authority, demanding that he pay the temple tax, even though he was the heir of the kingdom.

Discourse (18:1-35)

Chapter 18 is the fourth of the five great discourses in Matthew. It deals with how the citizens of Christ’s kingdom should relate to each other (Pratt 1575). Jesus taught his disciples that the greatest in the kingdom of heaven would be the one who would become humble like a little child (Matt 18:1-6). He described his care for his people by comparing it to a shepherd searching for a lost sheep (Matt. 18:10-14). And he explained how Jesus’ care for us should translate into our care for each other so that we forgive the brother or sister who sins against us and show concern for each other’s troubles (Matt 18:15-20).

Triumph and Judgment in the Kingdom (19:1-25:46)

The final narrative-discourse pair occurs in chapters 19–25. Through his actions, the parables he taught, and the answers he gave to those who challenged him, Jesus revealed the remarkable changes his kingdom brings to the beliefs and practices of God’s people. These changes include both triumphs and judgment (Sproul 1361).

Narrative (19:1-23:39)

Beginning with chapter 19, Matthew showed Jesus leaving Galilee and traveling through a region of Judea on the other side of the Jordan. This was likely the region of Perea, which stood just east of the Jordan River and south of the region of the Decapolis. Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem, where he would be betrayed and crucified. These chapters show that many people accepted Jesus’ teaching and even praised him as he triumphally entered Jerusalem, but many others challenged his teaching and ultimately rejected it.

Discourse (24:1-25:46)

Chapters 24 and 25 are often called the Olivet Discourse because Jesus delivered it on the Mount of Olives. The focus of this discourse is on the judgment that Jesus’ kingdom would bring. But just how and when that judgment would come has been disputed throughout the ages. These are not easy chapters to understand. Kim Riddlebarger class the Olivet Discourse, “one of the most difficult and disputed passages in the whole New Testament” (157). D. A. Carson agrees:

“Few chapters of the Bible have called forth more disagreement among interpreters than Matthew 24 and its parallels in Mark 13 and Luke 21. The history of the interpretation of this passage is immensely complex” (Carson, 488).

People debate whether Jesus was prophesying the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in A.D. 70; or whether he was prophesying the world-wide destruction that would precede his second coming; or whether he was prophesying a mixture of both in such a way that it is difficult to separate them sharply. While not being dogmatic about it, we tend to favor the interpretation that suggests a mixture of both since it accounts best for the presence of language within the discourse that includes both near and distant points of focus. Regardless of which interpretation is chosen, we should not lose sight of the fact that Jesus' kingdom brings with it intense destruction when the judgment of Jesus commences. And we should all heed the multiple warnings that Jesus gave in chapter 25 to be ready for that day.

The Passion and Resurrection (26:1–28:20)

The final three chapters in Matthew deal with the final days of Jesus’ life. He spent time with his disciples, establishing the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. He spent time alone praying in Gethsemane. He was arrested and put on trial before the Sanhedrin and Pilate. He suffered and died on the cross as the King of the Jews. But at his resurrection, he rose to life as the victorious King. Jesus revealed himself to his disciples and commissioned them to spread the good news of his kingdom to the ends of the earth until his return.

Mark

Mark wrote his gospel primarily for a Gentile audience in Rome as well as other places in Italy and beyond. He presented a simplified account of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection that was based on the eyewitness testimony of Jesus’ disciples. Mark limited the historical details of Jesus’ life (Sproul, 1412). He focused on what the apostles preached regarding Jesus’ death and resurrection and the events leading up to it. Mark presented Jesus as a model for the disciples of a true Israelite. As a true Israelite, Jesus demonstrated the necessity of submitting to the Word of God through what he said and did. Mark showed Jesus as both the Son of God and the Son of Man. Already in chapter 1, he showed how evil spirits called Jesus, “the Holy One of God” (1:24), but he also showed Jesus in the state of humiliation that came from living out his earthly, Messianic calling.

Mark emphasized teaching and preaching the gospel not only as theological truth but also as the power of God over evil and sickness (Sproul 1413). Mark emphasized the church’s mission to the Gentiles. He explained Jewish terms and customs throughout his gospel. He structured his gospel to show Jesus spending considerable time in Galilee, where many Gentiles lived. He showed Jesus’ interest in the Gentiles throughout his ministry on earth, even having Jesus quote the prophet Isaiah when he spoke of the temple as “a house of prayer for all nations” (Mark 11:17). Mark is also the one who recorded the Gentile centurion’s confession at the cross that “truly this man was the Son of God” (Mark 15:39).

The Gospel of Mark follows a simple organization that can be divided into three parts: the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, Jesus’ Galilean ministry, and Jesus’ Judean ministry (Pratt 1598).

The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry (1:1-13)

Several events near the beginning of Jesus’ ministry helped Mark demonstrate that Jesus was Israel’s long-awaited Messiah. Mark began by demonstrating that John the Baptist was the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy concerning a messenger who would precede the advent of the Christ. Mark then showed with John’s baptism of Jesus how the Father revealed Jesus’ unique status as the divine Son of God by sending his Holy Spirit to descend upon him like a dove (Martin, Gospels 179-80).

Jesus’ Galilean Ministry (1:14–9:50)

The largest section of Mark concerns Jesus’ ministry among Gentiles in Galilee. Jewish religious leaders were also present in Galilee, but Mark showed how Jesus often entered into controversies with them. Through his miracles and teaching, Jesus’ ministry grew until the crowds that followed him numbered in the thousands. Jesus resisted public acclaim and devoted much of his time preparing his disciples for his eventual death and resurrection as well as their future ministries (Pratt 1601).

Jesus’ Judean Ministry (10:1–16:20)

Jesus’ preparation of his disciples in Galilee was directed toward the third phase of his ministry, which took place in Judea. Jesus ministered throughout Judea, traveling ever closer to Jerusalem, the place where he would die and rise again. As he traveled, Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders and the institutions they represented. He revealed himself more fully to his twelve disciples as the Messiah who had come to suffer and die for his people and later to rise again, even though they did not fully understand what he was saying until after his death and resurrection had occurred.

There is some question about the authenticity of Mark 16:9-20. Your Bible may note that some of the earliest manuscripts do not include these verses in Mark. However, they were already part of the Bible as early as the first half of the second century A.D. (Martin, Gospels 219). Some have suggested that Mark left his gospel incomplete, and someone else finished it for him. The original Greek of these verses has a different style and vocabulary (Pratt 1638). Despite its troublesome history, this section of Mark is included in most of the later Greek manuscripts. Perhaps the best solution is to continue including these verses in Mark’s gospel, noting that the content of these verses is supported by the other gospels.

Luke

Luke was not an eyewitness to the events of Jesus’ life and ministry. Rather, he relied on research and eyewitness accounts from others to establish the facts of Jesus’ life. As a doctor, he was well-equipped to handle such research and to present a true and orderly account of Jesus’ ministry. Luke presented the facts of Jesus’ life in such a way as to establish their importance in salvation history and to guide the church in its mission to preach repentance and forgiveness in Jesus’ name to all nations (Knowles 468).

Luke placed special emphasis on God’s plan of redemption that was set in place long before Jesus was born, and that was made known through the prophets. Luke followed the same pattern as Mark, starting with a section on Jesus’ preparation for ministry, then a section on Jesus' ministry in Galilee, then a section on Jesus’ movement to Jerusalem, followed by a section on Jesus' passion and resurrection. But Luke spent much more time on Jesus’ movement to Jerusalem and shortened the section on Jesus’ ministry in Galilee (Carson and Moo 198). Luke wrote to give an “orderly account” so that Theophilus might know the certainty of the things he was taught. Luke was very precise and orderly in his account, but it was much more than a straight historical report. Luke’s aim was to explain the history of salvation, to explain what Jesus accomplished as the Messiah, who introduced the kingdom of God.

Luke showed concern for many people who would normally have been considered insignificant in his day—women, children, the poor—and in doing so, he showed how Jesus cared for them. Luke emphasized the Gentiles as the ultimate recipients of God’s salvation. He emphasized the fulfillment of God’s plan in providing salvation for the world, using words like “salvation” and “savior” more than all the other gospel writers. He also emphasized the sovereignty of God, the work of the Holy Spirit, the importance of prayer, and the reactions of the people to Jesus (Harrison 204-7).

Preface (1:1-4)

Luke wrote the preface to his Gospel in a formal Greek style, explaining his careful investigation of Jesus’ ministry and his desire to present a true and orderly account of it. Luke was the only gospel writer to include a formal prologue, which implies that Luke wrote his gospel intending it to receive wide circulation. He addressed his work to Theophilus, who may have been his patron.

Preparation for Jesus’ Public Ministry (1:5–4:13)

In narrating the preparations for Jesus’ public ministry, Luke made clear that this was a special time within the history of Israel. God was intervening to bring salvation to his people. Luke recorded the miraculous births of both John the Baptist and Jesus to show that God alone announced and provided his Messiah. Luke showed how the lives and ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus intertwined (Pratt 1640). He also recorded the only story we have of Jesus as a boy when he traveled to Jerusalem with his parents.

Jesus’ Public Ministry in Galilee (4:14–9:50)

Jesus began his public ministry in his home town of Nazareth when he stood up in the synagogue and quoted from Isaiah, “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor, He has sent me to proclaim liberty to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor” (Luke 4:18-19/Isaiah 61:1-2). The many miracles of Jesus and other events that Luke included in this section confirmed Luke’s emphasis that the Lord’s favor included not only the Jews from Judea as well as Galilee but also the Gentiles.

Jesus’ Journey from Galilee to Jerusalem (9:51–19:27)

As Jesus’ ministry in Galilee neared an end, Jesus turned his attention increasingly to Jerusalem. This section shows Jesus setting out toward Jerusalem, and describes what he taught and the miracles he performed along the way. In describing this time in Jesus’ ministry, Luke stressed Jesus’ ministry to people who normally would have been ignored: women, children, and sinners. Luke is the only gospel writer who recorded Jesus’ meeting with Zacchaeus. Luke is also the only gospel writer who recorded Jesus’ parables of the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, and the Shrewd Manager (Carson and Moo 198).

Jesus’ Public Ministry in Jerusalem (19:28–21:38)

Luke reported how Jesus entered Jerusalem in triumph, but soon faced conflict at the temple, the central religious institution of the Old Testament. Jesus exerted his authority by driving out the moneychangers at the temple, only to have his authority questioned when he began teaching the people in the temple courts. Jesus maintained his authority throughout this section and even declared the destruction of the temple because of the sins of God’s people.

Jesus’ Last Days in Jerusalem (22:1–24:53)

The final days of Jesus’ earthly life and his resurrection are recorded in the last three chapters of Luke’s gospel. Chapter 22 records events leading up to Jesus’ crucifixion. They include the story of the Last Supper, Jesus praying at the Mount of Olives, Jesus’ arrest, and Peter’s act of disowning Jesus. Chapter 23 records his trials before Pilate and Herod, as well as his crucifixion and burial. Only Luke recorded that Jesus forgave his executioners and that he gave assurance to the dying thief on the cross. Chapter 24 records Jesus’ resurrection, various appearances to his disciples, and his ascension. Luke made sure to record how Jesus commissioned his disciples to be his witnesses after they had received power from on high. Luke ended this volume of his history by showing how Jesus blessed the disciples and left them worshiping and praising God.

John

John made sure that everyone knew his purpose for composing his gospel by writing it down in John 20:31. He said, “but these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name.” John wanted to make sure that unbelievers would come to faith in Jesus Christ and that believers would grow in their faith in Jesus as the Messiah and the Son of God descended from heaven.

John presented Jesus Christ in his role as the Divine Logos, or Word. As John Piper put it, “When we come to know Jesus in John’s Gospel, we come to know God” (“In the Beginning” 2008). According to the Apostle John:

- Jesus alone can reveal the Father. He can do so because he is the Son and shares in his Father’s deity.

- Jesus is one with the Father.

- Jesus made the universe.

- Jesus provides spiritual water and bread.

- Jesus was the Lamb of God, who gave his life for his people.

- Jesus still works in our hearts through his Spirit enabling us to perform the great work of evangelism and to bear much fruit (Pratt 1696-7)

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John emphasized contrasting concepts and themes like light and darkness; from above and from below; life and death; truth and falsehood. He emphasized our sinfulness and our complete dependence on God for salvation (Sproul 1507).

Prologue (1:1-18)

John’s prologue is unique. Instead of announcing the birth of Jesus, he announced Jesus’ incarnation as the light breaking into the darkness. John identified Jesus as the Word, who was active at creation, was with God in the beginning, and in fact, was God. John told how Jesus came to his own people, the Jews, but they rejected him. He explained how Jesus gave the right to become children of God to all those who received him by faith, whether they were Jews or Gentiles. John also showed how this Word became flesh. He dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory. And it is this Word that has made the Father known. In the chapters that follow, John will give details of just how Jesus made the Father known through his ministry.

Jesus’ Public Ministry (1:19–12:50)

John reported events of Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem, Judea, and Galilee, especially around the time of Jewish feasts. During Jesus’ ministry, those who had been given to Christ by the Father believed and responded in faith, while others rejected him. Their stories illustrate the process of becoming a true disciple and of believing all that Christ taught about himself. John introduced Jesus’ ministry by showing how John the Baptist and Jesus’ first disciples recognized that Jesus was sent from heaven as the Messiah. John the Baptist proclaimed him to be “... the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (John 1:29b). And Philip acknowledged that Jesus was the one “of whom Moses in the Law and also the prophets wrote…” (John 1:45b).

John then turned to Jesus’ ministry in Cana, a town in Galilee near Nazareth. Jesus performed his first miracle there, turning water into wine. After this first miracle, several important events highlighted the extensive changes Jesus brought to the world. Jesus cleansed the temple, forcefully showing the religious establishment that change was needed. He taught Nicodemus, a Pharisee, and a member of the ruling council that even he needed to be born again. John then told about John the Baptist’s further testimony that Jesus was indeed the Christ and that he must become greater while John the Baptist must become less. Jesus taught a Samaritan woman, who normally would have been ignored, and instead brought her and many other Samaritan to faith. Jesus then returned to Cana, this time healing an official’s son.

John’s account then shifts from Galilee to Jerusalem, where Jesus performed a miracle at the pool of Bethesda, and faced conflict regarding his observance of the Sabbath and his relationship to the Father. In Galilee, Jesus fed the five thousand and walked on water, corresponding to Israel’s experiences of Passover, crossing the sea, and receiving manna during the Exodus from Egypt (Pratt 1697). Jesus also spent time teaching his disciples his role as the bread of life, and that “unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you” (John 6:53). The teaching was a hard teaching and revealed in stark terms the identity of Jesus Christ and the identity of his true disciples, who did not leave Jesus, despite the many who did (John 6:66-69).

Jesus then went to Jerusalem for the Feast of Booths. Jesus taught at the feast, but many still rejected him. Later, when Jesus was at the Feast of Dedication in Jerusalem, he again taught at the temple, explaining that he was Israel’s shepherd. But this was a time when disbelief among the Jews was increasing, and they rejected him. Despite this, Jesus returned to the vicinity of Jerusalem, where he showed his victory over death by raising Lazarus but also prepared for his own death with his anointing at Bethany, his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and his verbal prediction of his death. He was admired by many Gentiles, but only a few Jews received him (Pratt 1697).

Jesus’ Ministry to His Disciples (13:1–17:26)

Chapters 13–17 show Jesus focusing on his ministry to his disciples. He served them. He comforted them, and he prayed for them. He washed their feet. He predicted his betrayal by Judas and Peter’s denial. He assured the disciples that he was the way to the Father, and he promised his Holy Spirit, who would teach them all things and remind them of everything Jesus taught them. Above all, Jesus encouraged his disciples to remain in him in the same way that branches draw their life from the vine. He warned them that the world would hate them just as the world hated him. But their grief would be turned into joy because he overcame the world. Jesus then prayed for himself, his disciples, and for all believers. He prayed to the Father for his own glorification, so that he, in turn, could glorify the Father. He prayed that the Father would protect his disciples and keep them distinct from the world. And he prayed for all those who would later come to believe in him, asking that they be unified and that one day they would be brought to be with him.

The Ministry Reaches Its Climax (18:1–20:31)

Chapters 18–20 show Jesus’ death and resurrection, which were the climactic events of Jesus’ ministry and showed him to be the Messiah and the Son of God. Jesus was arrested, placed on trial, and sentenced to die. He was crucified, died, and was buried, but later rose again. John records several appearances of Jesus after his resurrection. Specifically, Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene and the disciples.

The events that took place between Jesus’ arrest and his death and resurrection are covered in all four gospels. However, there are some difficulties correlating the four different accounts. The Reformation Study Bible gives possibly the best explanation. It says,

“While some difficulties arise in the correlation of details, the main elements are in complete harmony. Jesus was arrested at night. His trial before the Jewish authorities had at least two phases, and during this part of the trial, Peter denied Jesus three times. The trial before secular powers had three phases, and Jesus was executed by Pilate’s soldiers. He was buried in Joseph of Arimathea’s tomb, and on the first day of the week, He arose from the dead and was seen alive in a variety of appearances to His disciples. None of the difficulties in the correlation of details in insuperable, but in a number of cases, more than one explanation is possible, and in the absence of fuller data, it is difficult to choose among them” (Sproul 1547).

Epilogue (21:1-25)

John ended his Gospel with a touching story of how Jesus reinstated Peter after Peter denied him at his trial. Jesus confirmed to Peter what Peter already knew, that he loved Jesus. And Jesus commissioned Peter to feed his sheep. He did not promise Peter a life of ease, but Peter knew he could heed Jesus’ call to follow him.

In the second to the last verse, John mentioned himself as the one who wrote the gospel. He could have mentioned many other things. He said as much in the final verse: “Now there are also many other things that Jesus did. Were every one of them to be written, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written” (John 21:25).

Application

All the passages in the gospels have multiple applications to our hearts and lives. We do not have the space to go through specific applications, but we can at least focus on a few general applications that arise in connection with these books.

Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and you shall be saved.

The purpose of the gospels is summarized in John 20:31, “But these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name.” The good news of Jesus Christ does us no good unless it is applied to our hearts in such a way that we believe and receive life in his name. Every story in the gospels, every parable, every sermon, is directed toward this end. It confronts us with the truth of Jesus Christ and demands a heart commitment.

Christians Are Saved to Serve

Christians have been given new life because of Jesus Christ. Throughout the gospels, we see Jesus confronting sin, healing sinners, forgiving their sins, and saying, “Go, sin no more” (John 8:11). Jesus expects sinners who have been confronted by his grace and mercy to live in a way that reflects their new life in Christ. Do we live in total reliance on the grace and mercy of Jesus Christ? Does the good news of new life in him really produce a life that is new?

Jesus Christ Came as the Only Acceptable Sacrifice for Sin

When Jesus Christ came, he “made himself nothing, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross” (Phil. 2:7-8). That summary from Philippians is the heart of the gospel message. Man sinned, and man must pay for his sin. But God’s justice demanded a perfect sacrifice. Only Jesus Christ, who was like us in every way except for sin (Heb. 4:15), was able to provide an acceptable sacrifice. At times, Christians can be tempted to drift into moralism, thinking that somehow, we can remove the sting of sin ourselves by just doing enough good deeds. But even our best deeds are tainted with sin. Our sacrifices will never be enough to pay for our sin. We must keep our eyes focused continually on Christ and the work he did on our behalf.

Christian are called to obey the Great Commission

Just before Jesus ascended into heaven, he told his disciples, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you. And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age" (Matt. 28:18-20). Jesus Christ has a job for those whose hearts and lives have been changed by the gospel. They are to be actively involved in making disciples of all nations by preaching the good news of Jesus Christ, baptizing them, and teaching them to observe Christ’s commands.

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Acts

Acts chronicles the growth and expansion of the church, through the witness of the apostles, the missionary efforts of the church, and even the persecution of its members. While Acts describes the ministries of many apostles, its focus falls to two of them. Chapters 1–12 focus on the ministry of Peter, while chapters 13–28 focus increasingly on the acts of Paul.

Background

As a book of history, Acts explains what happened to the church after Jesus Christ ascended into heaven and poured his Spirit on the apostles. It contains sermons the apostles preached, decisions they made, miracles they performed, and the suffering they endured.

Genre and Literary Forms

The primary genre of the book of Acts is historical narrative. Much of what we said regarding the historical narrative genre in the gospels can also be said of the book of Acts. However, there are some differences. In the gospels, the narrative focused on Jesus’ earthly ministry as it began in Galilee and ended in Jerusalem. In Acts, the focus is on the growth and spread of the church from Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). This spread of the church was first carried forward primarily by Peter (chapters 1–12) and then later by Paul (chapters 13–28).

Within the historical narrative genre, we find literary forms like ones we found in the gospels. Acts contains accounts of sermons, parables, dialog, prayer, prophecy, miracles as well as prophecy and poetry. A more detailed discussion of these literary forms can be found in chapter one.

Historical Setting

Acts is the second volume of the two-volume set known by theologians as Luke-Acts. It was written at approximately the same time as the gospels, so you can simply go to Lesson One for a review of the historical setting of Acts.

Author and Date

Luke was a Gentile Christian, who is thought to have come from Antioch in Syria (Sproul 1451). He was not an eyewitness to the events he recorded. Rather, he acquired his information through research. He would have been an able researcher, having honed his researching skills in preparing for his career as a doctor. The apostle Paul identified Luke as a doctor and his dear friend in Colossians 4:14. Luke traveled with Paul on Paul’s second and third missionary journeys and, at times, even used the pronoun “we” to refer to himself and Paul in describing those journeys in the book of Acts.

Luke first wrote his gospel and then followed that with the book of Acts. Acts ends with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome but does not mention what happened to Paul when his imprisonment ended in A.D. 63. This means that Acts was likely written sometime prior to A.D. 64, with the Gospel of Luke being written even earlier. Luke probably wrote these books either from Rome or Achaia, a part of Greece.

Original Audience

Luke dedicated both Luke and Acts to Theophilus, whose name means “Lover of God” (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1) Theophilus was likely a committed Christian who wanted to learn more about Jesus Christ and the movement called “The Way” that arose after Christ. He could have been a patron of Luke, providing a living for Luke and enabling him to do research for his two books (Sproul 1557). Although the books are directed primarily to Theophilus, they are appropriate for all those who consider themselves lovers of God.

Content

Acts was written as a sequel to Luke’s gospel. In his gospel, Luke presented an accurate account of Jesus’ ministry and the message he proclaimed. In Acts, Luke turned to the continuing mission of the church and the Holy Spirit, who empowered the apostles to spread their witness of Christ’s work to Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth. Like the Gospel of Luke, Acts records accurate details, such as official actions, geographical details, and nautical terms, that could only have come from careful research. Acts also displays an excellent use of Greek as well as Semitic terms. The first twelve chapters of Acts focus on the ministry of Peter throughout Jerusalem, Judea, and Samaria. Chapters 13–28 focus on Paul and his ministry throughout Asia Minor, Greece, and finally, Rome, the capital of the Gentile world.

The Apostolic Witness and the Spirit's Power (1:1–2:47)

Before Jesus ascended into heaven, his disciples asked him if the time had come for him to restore the kingdom to Israel. Jesus did not give them the answer they were looking for. He said that the time was not for them to know. Instead, they would receive power from the Holy Spirit, and that power would enable them to be Jesus’ witnesses to the ends of the earth. Acts begins by showing the disciples waiting for the Holy Spirit, receiving the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and leading the church that emerged from their witness. As the disciples waited for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, they determined that they should replace Judas with another man who was with the apostles from the beginning. After casting lots, Matthias was added to the eleven apostles.

The wait ended with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. Pentecost was one of the three great annual feasts in Israel, coming between Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles. Pentecost was also known by other names: the Feast of Weeks, the Feast of Harvest, and the Day of First Fruits. It was appropriate that the Holy Spirit was poured out on that day as many people became believers on that day and were added as firstfruits to the harvest of believers in Christ. All the apostles, plus many other believers, were gathered on that day in a house near the temple courts when the Holy Spirit came upon them with the sound of a rushing wind. What appeared to be tongues of fire rested on each of them. The apostles were filled with the Spirit and began to speak in a way that people from other nations and languages were able to understand them. This was God reversing what he had done at Babel. It was a baffling event to many Jews gathered for Pentecost, but then Peter stood up, addressed the crowd, and presented the clear message of the gospel with power. About three thousand believed and were added to the number of Christians that day.

Because of the apostles’ witness, the church grew and devoted itself to the apostles’ teaching and to the fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer (Acts 2:42). Luke recorded some of the unique practices of the early Christians, but emphasized their faithfulness to the gospel, with the result that the Lord added to their number daily.

The Apostolic Witness in Jerusalem (3:1–7:60)

With the excitement of Pentecost still fresh in their minds, the apostles proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ with power. Just as Jesus instructed, they first began preaching in Jerusalem. Peter began by boldly commanding a crippled beggar to walk. He then proclaimed the truth of Jesus’ death and resurrection in the temple courts. Not even the Sanhedrin could stop Peter and John from speaking about what they had seen and heard.

But the excitement that came with the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost was soon tempered by struggles within and outside the church. Ananias and Sapphira tried to lie to the Holy Spirit and were struck down. The apostles were arrested and put in jail for a time. When seven men were chosen to aid the apostles, one of the seven, Stephen, was seized and stoned to death. The persecution of the church had begun.

The Apostolic Witness in Judea and Samaria (8:1–12:25)

As persecution increased, the apostolic witness moved beyond Jerusalem into Judea and Samaria. Two significant events propelled the apostolic witness beyond Jerusalem: Saul’s conversion to Christianity, and Peter’s breaking of the barrier between Jewish and Gentile believers.

Chapter 8 shows the gospel expanding through the work of individuals like Philip and Peter, but the most significant expansion of the church would come through the conversion of the apostle Paul in chapter 9. We first read of Paul at the end of chapter 7, where he played a role in the execution of Stephen. He was so zealous in persecuting Christians that he traveled to Damascus to seek out Christians there, too. But Jesus had different plans for him. He stopped Saul on the road to Damascus and drafted him into his service as one of the greatest missionaries of the New Testament.

Long before Paul converted to Christianity, Peter was sitting and learning at the feet of Jesus Christ. He preached the Word with power at Pentecost and continued to witness to the work of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem and Samaria. But at first, his work was limited to the Jews. It took a miraculous intervention by God in Peter's life and in the life of a Gentile believer named Cornelius to break down the barrier between Jewish believers and Gentiles who were also coming to the faith. Through a vision and his experience at Cornelius’ house, Peter was led to exclaim of the Gentiles, “If then God gave the same gift to them as he gave to us when we believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, who was I that I could stand in God’s way?” (Acts 11:17). From this point on, the church recognized that the Gospel was not limited to Jews only but was truly meant to be carried to all people and to the ends of the earth. Peter also recognized that the Lord still had much work for him to do since the Lord rescued him from Herod’s prison, which would have meant certain death, and the Lord administered certain death to Herod instead (Acts 12).

The Apostolic Witness to the Ends of the Earth (13:1-28:31)[1]

With the start of this section, Luke shifted his attention from Peter to Paul. Although Paul came into his role under unique circumstances, he suffered the same persecution the apostles before him endured. Paul went on three missionary journeys and a fourth journey to Rome, where he carried the gospel to what at the time was considered the ends of the earth.

In chapter 13, we read that Paul and Barnabas were among a group of teachers at the church in Antioch. This church set Paul and Barnabas apart to travel beyond Antioch, spreading the Good News of Jesus Christ. Paul and Barnabas set out for the island of Cyprus and then traveled through what is now Turkey, preaching first to people who were Jews. Many Jews believed, but many others strongly opposed them, so that Paul and Barnabas also preached to Gentiles. After Paul and Barnabas reached the town of Derbe, they went back through the cities in Turkey, where they had preached and spent time encouraging the new believers in each city, appointing elders to lead them. At this point, a controversy arose regarding new believers who were not Jews. Some men were teaching that they had to obey the laws of Moses, while Paul and Barnabas disagreed. In chapter 15, a council was held in Jerusalem to decide the matter, which resulted in Gentile believers not being held to the Mosaic law.

Sometime later, Paul made plans to travel by land back to the towns in Turkey that he and Barnabas visited on their first journey. Because of a disagreement with Barnabas, Paul went on this second journey with Silas instead. They traveled through the towns they had previously visited, adding Timothy to their group during their travels. Then they decided to travel even further west, reaching the coast of Turkey, where they added Luke to their group. They continued their journey, traveling by sea and land through Macedonia and Achia, in what is now Greece. Paul finished his journey by traveling through Ephesus and Caesarea before returning to Antioch in Syria.

Paul’s third missionary journey took him back through Galatia, Phrygia, Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia—what is now modern-day Turkey and Greece. He visited many of the churches that he had previously established and expressed his intent to travel on to Jerusalem, knowing that his time in Jerusalem would likely end with his arrest and imprisonment. In Acts 20, Paul gave a heartfelt farewell to the elders in Ephesus before setting sail for Jerusalem.

When Paul returned to Jerusalem to celebrate Pentecost, he was falsely accused by the Jews of inciting a riot within the temple area. Paul tried to reason with the crowd, but they would have none of it, and the Roman soldiers took him into custody. While Paul was in Roman custody, the Jewish leaders devised a plan to assassinate him, but it was discovered, and the Roman soldiers whisked Paul away to Felix, the governor of the province. Felix liked listening to Paul, but he left Paul in prison for two years because he also wanted to grant a favor to the Jews. By that time, Festus had replaced Felix and held another trial for Paul, which ended when Paul appealed to Caesar. Festus granted his appeal, fulfilling the Lord’s words to Paul in Acts 23:11, “Take courage, for as you have testified to the facts about me in Jerusalem, so you must testify also in Rome” Luke’s account ends with Paul ministering under house arrest in Rome.

Application

All the passages in Acts have multiple applications to our hearts and lives. We do not have the time to go through specific applications, but we can at least focus on a few general applications that arise in connection with this book.

Christians are Christ’s Witnesses on Earth

When Jesus ascended into heaven, he told his apostles, “You will be my witnesses” (Acts 1:8). Jesus Christ did not leave this world to forget about it. Rather, he sent his Holy Spirit to empower his disciples to be his hands and feet, to declare the gospel message of his work as Savior and his authority as Lord of the world.

Christ Extends his Kingdom through the Witness of Believers

Jesus not only told the apostles that they would be his witnesses, but he also said that he would send them as witnesses further and further out to the world. He told the apostles, “you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Jesus calls all believers to retain a missionary zeal for reaching those yet unreached with the gospel message of salvation in Jesus Christ and with the claims of Christ’s authority over all the world.

The World Will Hate You

Just as the world hated Christ, so it will hate those who follow Christ. The book of Acts is full of stories that show the world reacting against the gospel message. Apostles were imprisoned, whipped, stoned, and even beheaded. Cities like Ephesus fell into riots because of the impact of the gospel message. The world wants to do things its own way. It accepts no other authority other than its own. When Christians come claiming that Jesus is Lord over the world, they can expect to be hated for it.

The Lord Is Still Powerfully at Work Building His Kingdom.

With all the troubles going on throughout the world, it may seem that Jesus Christ is very distant from what is happening. But that is far from the case. Just as Jesus was powerfully at work in first-century Christianity, so he is powerfully at work today. And just as the gospel spread from one small point in Jerusalem to Rome, the capital of the world. So, the gospel continues to spread, and Jesus Christ continues to claim those who are his, from every corner of the world. Jesus Christ has been given all authority in heaven and on earth (Matt. 28:18). One day, Jesus will come again, and all the earth will acknowledge his authority. Until that time, he uses believers to press his claims everywhere.

3

The Pauline Epistles

Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 21 are letters, also called epistles. Of the 21 epistles, 13 were written by the Apostle Paul.

Background

In this chapter, we will examine the Pauline epistles by discussing the epistolary genre, some background to the apostle Paul, and the original audiences that Paul addressed in his letters. We will then summarize the content of each epistle and make some general comments regarding how to apply these epistles to our lives today.

Genre

Epistles apply the gospel message to specific challenges faced by churches. Some epistles focused on practical problems while others were more theological in nature, but they all addressed specific needs faced by churches.

Because they are letters, epistles have a warmer, more personal tone than they would have had if they had been theological papers. Also, because they are letters, they are written with a specific, original audience in mind. Paul wrote his letters knowing the original audience. We do not have the same advantage. We do not know as much about Paul’s opponents as the original recipients of his letters. What we do know has mostly been inferred from a close analysis of the letters themselves.

Epistles in Paul’s day followed a simple form that included a salutation, a body, and a conclusion. When Paul wrote his epistles, he generally followed the common genre, although he did make important changes when he saw fit.

Salutation

The salutation would normally state the names of the author(s) and the recipient(s), followed by a greeting. Paul often expanded on the greeting by including a word of thanksgiving or blessing. At times, Paul would make a specific theological point in the salutation, as he did, for example, in Galatians and Titus. A good theological exercise is to look at Paul’s salutations and discern where he strayed from the normal format because it will often indicate some of Paul’s main concerns when he sat down to write the letter.

Body

New Testament epistles contain numerous literary elements within the body of each letter. However, particularly with the Pauline epistles, the following three elements are prominent:

Autobiography

Paul told us many details about his life. He suffered from a “thorn in the flesh.” He was single, and he struggled with sin, even calling himself the worst of sinners. He got into intense disagreements with people like Barnabas and Peter. In reading his letters, we come to know much more than just Christian theology. We come to know the person behind the theology. We can learn how Paul’s theology affected his life. And we learn how this theology can affect our own lives, too. Through Paul’s autobiographical comments, we can learn how Paul glorified God through his life experiences and can find ways to appropriately imitate him as he imitated Christ.

Teaching

Much of today’s Christian theology is based on Paul’s epistles. The doctrine we find in Paul certainly is not absent from other books in the Bible, but Paul expressed it in crystal clear fashion. Paul made it perfectly clear that justification is solely through faith. He showed our total inability to merit God’s favor and our total dependence on God’s grace. Paul defined the necessity of Jesus Christ’s resurrection. He showed Jesus as the divine Lord who humbled himself and became a man. Through Paul’s teaching, we can understand the essential elements of true Christianity and find practical guidance in living what we believe.

Defending the Faith

When Paul saw error in the church, he did not hesitate to fight it. It did not matter who stated the error or how many people followed it. He demonstrated the courage of his convictions. Through Paul’s defense of the faith against false teachers of his day, we can learn how to contend for the faith against false teachers in our day.

Conclusion

Paul concluded his epistles with the standard closing greetings that were used in his day. He also often included a doxology and/or a benediction.

Author[2]

Here is how Paul described himself and the work he was called to do:

“Of this gospel I was made a minister according to the gift of God’s grace, which was given me by the working of his power. To me, though I am the very least of all the saints, this grace was given, to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ, and to bring to light for everyone what is the plan of the mystery hidden for ages in God who created all things.” (Eph. 3:7-9)

Paul was born in Tarsus, which made him a Roman citizen. He was familiar with Greek thought, and he was thoroughly trained in Judaism, being a child of devout Jewish parents and a member of the tribe of Benjamin (Rom. 11:1). He was adamantly opposed to Christianity until one day, while he was traveling to persecute Christians in Damascus, he was confronted by the risen and ascended Lord. From that day, Paul proved himself to be a zealous missionary and compelling theologian, who left behind an example of a life poured out for the Lord, and a body of literature that has become the theological treasure we know as the Pauline epistles.

Birth and Early Life (A.D. 5-35)

Paul was born probably around A.D. 5 in the city of Tarsus in the region of Cilicia in southeastern Asia Minor. He was called both Saul (his Jewish name) and Paul (his Roman name). Not much is known of his early life, although it is evident that in his youth, he received excellent training, being well-versed in Judaism and acquainted with Greek thought. This was to be expected since Tarsus was famous for its schools (Carson and Moo 355). Paul’s birth in Tarsus also made him a natural-born Roman citizen (Acts 22:28). It was a distinct privilege that Paul used throughout his life and ministry. Paul was a tentmaker by trade, a skill that he probably acquired in his native town of Tarsus. He used this trade to support himself throughout his ministry. At some point in his life, Paul moved to Jerusalem and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), which would have given him impressive credentials in the Jewish community.

Conversion and Early Ministry (A.D. 35-38)

Paul was present when Stephen was stoned in Jerusalem in A.D. 35. After the stoning, Paul was given approval by the high priest in Jerusalem to travel to Damascus and arrest Christians there. But on the road to Damascus, Jesus revealed himself to Paul in an extraordinary way. Jesus Christ changed Paul’s heart and gave him a new mission in life. He preached in Damascus and possibly traveled to Arabia (Acts. 9:23; Gal. 1:17) during this time. When the Jews in Damascus sought to kill him, Paul escaped and traveled back to Jerusalem (Acts 9:26-29; Gal. 1:18-19), where he preached until, for his own safety, the Christians in Jerusalem sent him to Caesarea and then on to Tarsus. (See Acts 9:30; 11:25-26; Galatians 1:21; 2:1)

Paul’s Ministry in Cilicia and Syria (A.D. 38-46)

Not much is known about this period of Paul’s ministry. But Paul did make a trip down to Jerusalem to provide aid to the church in Jerusalem as it dealt with the effects of famine (Acts 11:27-30; 12:25).

First Missionary Journey (A.D. 46-48)

Used with permission from www.thebiblejourney.org

Paul, along with his coworker Barnabas, was commissioned by the church in Antioch to serve as a missionary. Paul and Barnabas took John Mark with them as a helper and set sail for the island of Cyprus, which was the home of Barnabas. After ministering in Cyprus, they traveled to Pisidian Antioch in Asia Minor, where John Mark left them. Paul and Barnabas continued their trip to several cities in southern Galatia, in the middle of Asia Minor, establishing churches as they went. (Acts 13-14)

The Jerusalem Conference (A.D. 49/50)

After his first missionary journey, Paul returned to Antioch and ministered there. It is possible that Paul wrote his epistle to the Galatians at this time, sending it to the churches he recently established in southern Galatia (see Carson and Moo 461-4). His concern in the epistle to the Galatians was like a concern he faced in Antioch. While ministering in Antioch, Paul found himself in sharp disagreement with those who taught that circumcision was required for Gentile believers. Paul, Barnabas, and others traveled to Jerusalem to settle the matter. They rejoiced when those at the Jerusalem conference determined not to burden Gentile believers with the requirement of circumcision.

Second Missionary Journey (A.D. 50-52)

Used with permission from www.thebiblejourney.org

On his second missionary journey, Paul was accompanied by Silas, after getting into a disagreement with Barnabas regarding John Mark’s qualifications to serve as a missionary. Paul and Silas visited the churches Paul had established in Galatia, picking up Timothy along the way. They then traveled to Macedonia and Achaia, in what is now modern-day Europe. They established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea before traveling to Athens and on to Corinth, where they established a church and stayed for a year and a half. While in Corinth, Paul wrote his two letters to the Thessalonians, encouraging them in the face of severe persecution. According to Caron and Moo (461-4), if Paul wrote Galatians to Christians in northern Galatia, he could have written it around this time (See Acts 15:36-18:22).

Third Missionary Journey (A.D. A.D. 53-57)

Used with permission from www.thebiblejourney.org

On his third missionary journey, Paul again passed through Galatia and settled for a time in Ephesus. Upon hearing some disturbing reports from Corinth, Paul wrote the letter we know as 1 Corinthians to address the matter. Paul then traveled overland through Macedonia. While traveling through Macedonia, he heard from Titus that the church in Corinth had repented, and so he wrote 2 Corinthians in response and then traveled to visit the Corinthians in person. While at Corinth, Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans. After three months, Paul returned on the same route he had used to travel to Corinth and continued to Jerusalem in Judea. (See Acts. 19-20)

Imprisonment in Caesarea and Rome (A.D. 58-62)

Used with permission from www.thebiblejourney.org

When Paul arrived in Jerusalem, he visited James and the elders of the church in Jerusalem. They advised him to go along to the temple with four other men who had completed a Nazirite vow. They were to perform specific purification ceremonies related to the vow. Paul not only went with them, but he also paid their expenses. Paul had every right to be in the temple, but when the Jews saw him there, they thought he was bringing Greeks into the temple and defiling it. They stirred up the people so much that the Roman tribune had to intervene.

Paul remained under arrest in Jerusalem, but because of threats to his life, he was transferred to the coastal town of Caesarea, where he spent two years in prison. He was then transferred under guard to Rome, where he spent another two years under house arrest before seeing the Emperor. While in Rome, Paul wrote what have become known as the Prison Epistles: Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon (See Acts 21-28).

Fourth Missionary Journey (A.D. 62-67)

Used with permission from www.thebiblejourney.org

Paul was likely released from prison and was able to undertake a fourth missionary journey, where he could have traveled as far as Spain and also back to some of the churches, like Ephesus and Philippi, that he had established on prior journeys. First Timothy and Titus were probably written on this fourth journey when Paul was staying at Philippi.

Second Imprisonment and Execution in Rome (A.D. 67/68)

Church tradition holds that Paul was arrested again and placed in the Mamertine dungeon in Rome (Meyers 684), where he wrote 2 Timothy shortly before his execution in A.D. 67 or 68.

Original Audiences

Paul wrote to churches as well as to individuals. Both types of epistles are included in the New Testament canon.

The Church in Rome

By the time Paul wrote his letter to the Christians in Rome, the church there was already well-established. It could have been established soon after the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Jerusalem at Pentecost. Acts 2:10-11 confirms that Roman Jews and Gentile converts to Judaism were present at Pentecost. If some of them became Christians, they could have established a church in Rome soon after. The church in Rome included both Jewish and Gentile believers, but a majority were Gentiles. Some conflicts could have arisen between these two groups, which Paul may have been addressing when he warned the Gentile Christians not to be proud in 11:13-24, and when he addressed the conflict between the weak and the strong in 14:1-15:13. It is even possible that some of the house churches in Rome were exclusively Jewish or Gentile (Knowles 565).

The Church in Corinth

During his second missionary journey, Paul spent 18 months ministering to the people of Corinth and building the church there. While at Corinth, Paul experienced early and strong opposition to his ministry. He was soon expelled from the synagogue and went next door to the house of Titius Justus, who was a believer. Although some Jews did believe, most of the church was made up of Gentile believers. Some of these believers were from the wealthy upper class, but most came from the lower classes.

Like many believers, the Corinthian Christians were affected by the culture around them. Corinth was a major commercial city and one of the largest cities of the Roman empire. It was also one of the most corrupt. The people of Corinth were prosperous, but they were also used to getting their own way. They easily drifted into the sins of pride and immorality. It is easy to see why the church in Corinth struggled with internal bickering, disorder during worship services, theological misunderstandings, and the polar extremes of moral laxity and unhealthy asceticism (Knowles 576).

The Churches of Galatia

Two possibilities exist for the audience to whom Paul addressed in his letter to the Galatians: the churches in southern Galatia or the ethnic Galatians in the north. Paul established the churches in southern Galatia during his first missionary journey and revisited them in his second missionary journey. Paul encountered the ethnic Galatians in the north when he traveled through Galatia and Phrygia (Acts 18:23) on his third missionary journey (see Carson and Moo 458-61).

When Paul first preached in Galatia, he began by preaching to the Jews. But when many Jews rejected him, he turned to the Gentiles, who were much more receptive and formed a majority of the churches’ membership. The influx of so many Gentiles into the Galatian churches led to new questions and theological problems. Gentile believers questioned whether they had to conform to the Law of Moses, in particular the law requiring circumcision. To add to the problem, false teachers arose who gave conflicting answers to their questions. The churches in Galatia had a tough time sorting all this out and were in danger of forsaking the gospel that Paul had originally preached to them. The problems became so intense that the churches were being torn apart (Dockery 701).

The Church in Ephesus

Ephesus was the capital of the Roman province of Asia. It was an important city, being one of the top five cities of the Roman Empire because of its location on a major road leading into Asia and Syria. It was also famous for its temple to the goddess, Artemis (deSilva, 714).

Paul encountered stiff opposition from the artisans of Ephesus, who made their living selling silver shrines to Artemis. Paul spent two years in Ephesus ministering to the church there and forming a close bond with the elders. But Paul also had a secondary audience in mind when he wrote his letter to the Ephesians. He intended this letter to be read to other churches, especially those in the Lycus Valley in the towns of Laodicea, Colosse, and other churches in the area (Dockery 711). Paul was not personally familiar with many of the Christians in these churches, but he addressed many of their concerns in the letter.

The Church in Philippi

Philippi was a Roman colony that lay on the main road between Rome and the eastern provinces of the Roman empire. It was one of the first cities Paul visited after his vision to preach the gospel in Macedonia. Lydia, a dealer in purple cloth, was one of the first converts in Philippi. Paul and Silas were placed in prison there and took the opportunity provided by an earthquake to preach the gospel to the jailer who was converted to Christianity along with his family. The church in Philippi maintained a warm and loving relationship with Paul, sending him aid when he was in financial need. The Philippians were not wealthy, but they gave sacrificially to help Paul. Paul, in turn, was concerned for them and advised them regarding their problems with persecution, potential false teaching, and internal conflicts (Knowles 624).

The Church in Colosse

Colosse was a small city located east of Laodicea in the Lycus Valley in Asia Minor. At one time, it served as a center of trade, by Paul’s day it had declined in importance. Paul never visited the church there, although he did know about it. He may even have instructed some members of the Colossian church when he stayed in Ephesus. He kept informed about Colosse through Epaphras, a resident of Colosse who founded the church there and who visited Paul in Rome, and also through Onesimus, a slave of Paul’s friend Philemon, who lived in Colosse. Two other friends, Apphia, and Archippus also hailed from Colosse. Paul was concerned about the Colossian church because it was struggling with a false teaching that mixed Christianity with Greek philosophy, Jewish legalism, and the veneration of angelic spirits (Dockery 723).

The Church in Thessalonica

Paul, along with Silas and Timothy, established the church in Thessalonica on his second missionary journey. The congregation was predominantly Gentile. Like many young churches, the congregation in Thessalonica experienced problems. The church experienced early opposition from the synagogue and ongoing persecution even after Paul and Silas left (1 Thess. 2:14-16). False prophets strongly opposed the teaching of Paul, saying that the return of Jesus Christ was imminent. Those who listened to the false prophets assumed they could shirk their responsibilities since Christ would return soon, and they became discouraged when Christ did not return (Knowles 639).

Timothy

The letters of First and Second Timothy were written to Paul’s protege and coworker Timothy. Timothy was a young man from Lystra in the province of Galatia. He was taught the Jewish Scriptures by his mother and grandmother. When Paul returned to Lystra on his second missionary journey, Timothy joined him for the remainder of the trip. Paul referred to him as his child in the faith. Although Timothy was young and rather timid, Paul highly valued him and used him as his representative in the churches of Thessalonica, Corinth, Philippi, and Ephesus. Paul even included Timothy as a co-author in six of his letters: 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Timothy was also imprisoned but was later released (Brand, Draper and England 1597-8).

Titus

Titus was a trusted associate of Paul. He was a Gentile Christian with a Greek background, who traveled with Paul on his second, third, and fourth missionary journeys. When Titus traveled with Paul to Jerusalem, Paul refused to have Titus circumcised. Titus served as Paul’s representative on the island of Crete and in the province of Dalmatia. In Crete, Titus was charged with overseeing a very young church that still had not appointed any elders (Knowles 657).

Philemon

Philemon was a friend of Paul and a resident of Colosse. He was wealthy enough to hold slaves. He may also have owned the house where the Colossian church met for worship. It is not known how Paul and Philemon became friends, but it is possible that Paul originally led Philemon to the Lord. Whatever the case, Paul considered Philemon to owe him his very self. (Philemon 19). Two individuals who were close to Philemon were Apphia, who may have been Philemon’s wife, and Archippus. Philemon owned a slave, Onesimus, who had run away from Philemon and ended up being converted to Christianity by Paul (Carson and Moo 588).

Content

When Paul wrote his letters, he addressed questions that were important for the churches or individuals to whom he was writing. At times, his letters addressed doctrinal issues. At other times, his letters followed more practical themes. Often his letters addressed issues that represented a spectrum of concerns from doctrinal to practical.

Romans

In the preface to his commentary on Romans, Martin Luther described the book as the very purest gospel. He summarized it in this way,

“We find in this letter, then, the richest possible teaching about what a Christian should know: the meaning of law, gospel, sin, punishment, grace, faith, justice, Christ, God, good works, love, hope and the cross. We learn how we are to act toward everyone, toward the virtuous and sinful, toward the strong and the weak, friend and foe, and toward ourselves. Paul bases everything firmly on Scripture and proves his points with examples from his own experience and from the Prophets, so that nothing more could be desired. Therefore, it seems that St. Paul, in writing this letter, wanted to compose a summary of the whole of Christian and evangelical teaching which would also be an introduction to the whole Old Testament. Without doubt, whoever takes this letter to heart possesses the light and power of the Old Testament. Therefore, each and every Christian should make this letter the habitual and constant object of his study. God grant us his grace to do so. Amen (Luther, Preface to Romans)

We would do well to heed Martin Luther’s advice.

Paul wrote his letter to the Romans to give them a comprehensive explanation of the gospel and to explain how the gospel heals divisions between Jewish and Gentile believers. While all the books of the Bible contain the gospel, the book of Romans spells it out in clear and precise terms.

Paul gave a succinct summary of the gospel in Romans 3:23-24: “for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and are justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus.” Paul understood that sin is universal. Likewise, everyone deserves God’s judgment because everyone is a sinner, and God is right to be angry with them. Everyone should know better. Gentiles who have never heard of God know enough about him through creation to be without excuse, and Jews have heard God’s will through his law. But merely knowing the law or outwardly observing it will not save Jews from God’s wrath. Only God can bring about salvation, and he did so by sacrificing his Son on the cross, taking our sin upon himself and justifying us through his righteousness. This righteousness can only be gained by faith.

Paul also understood that the gospel has the power to change everything. He said in 8:1-2, “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death.” There is power in the gospel to reconcile us to God, to give us peace with God, and to break the chains of sin and death. The law can no longer convict us because we are dead to sin and made alive in Christ. We will still struggle with sin in this life, but as Paul said in 6:14, “For sin will have no dominion over you, since you are not under law but under grace.”

A key concern of the early church was the relationship between the Old Testament law and the New Testament gospel and the corresponding relationship between the people of the old covenant and the people of the new covenant. Paul addressed these concerns by showing that the Jews, as well as the Gentiles, relied on God’s grace for their salvation. As Paul put it in 11:32, “For God has consigned all to disobedience, that he may have mercy on all.” Paul made clear that God’s saving grace is not limited by national or ethnic boundaries. Rather, it depends on God’s sovereign choice, so that God can say to Moses, “I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion” (Rom. 9:15).

Paul also made a point of showing that the free grace of the gospel could never result in complacent Christians. Rather, God’s grace transforms the lives of the people it touches, and as the Heidelberg Catechism Q&A 1 puts it, “he makes us wholeheartedly ready and willing from now on to live for him.” For Paul, Christians are not only justified (made right with God) by God’s grace, but they are also sanctified (made more and more holy each day) by his grace. He said in 12:1, “I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship.”

Let’s take a closer look at the letter itself and trace the arguments Paul made in defense of God’s free, electing grace.

Paul’s Greetings and longings (1:1-17)

Paul opened this epistle with his typical greeting. He identified himself as a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ and elaborated on the gospel he was called to proclaim. Then he identified his audience as the Christians living in Rome and stated how he longed to visit them in person.

The Sinfulness of Jews and Gentiles (1:18–3:20)

Paul introduced his discussion of the gospel by proclaiming the universal sinfulness of all people. Everyone stands guilty before God, Gentiles and Jews alike. Even though Gentiles may not have had the benefit of knowing God’s law, they are still guilty before God. God reveals his eternal power and divine nature throughout creation. If Gentiles do not see that, it is because they have darkened their hearts and exchanged the truth of God for a lie. The Jews, who know God’s will through his law, also must acknowledge their sinful condition. In fact, Paul said in 2:12, “…all who have sinned under the law will be judged by the law.” The Jews are as guilty as the Gentiles. The law simply serves to bring their sin into the light and brings out God’s righteousness more clearly. Paul summarized his point in 3:10-12, “...There is no one righteous, not even one; there is no one who understands, no one who seeks God. All have turned away, they have together become worthless; there is no one who does good, not even one.”

Salvation for Jews and Gentiles (3:21–8:39)

If no one does good, not even one, then all people—Jews and Gentiles—need salvation. Paul used a discussion of justification and sanctification to explain how salvation comes to Jews and Gentiles. Justification is an act of God by which he pardons our sins and accounts us righteous. Earlier, Paul showed that it had to be an act of God since it was impossible to be justified by following the law. Paul then explained that righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe (3:22) It is Jesus Christ’s atoning work on the cross, applied to us by faith, that justifies us. Neither Jews nor Gentiles can boast because their justification does not come from them but from faith in Jesus Christ and his work on our behalf. Paul went on to explain that it was this same faith that justified Abraham even before Jesus Christ was born. Abraham was not justified by the law. Rather, he was justified by faith in the promise.

Paul expounded several benefits that come to those who are justified by faith. The Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible summarized this best in comments on Romans 5:1-11:

“Instead of estrangement (3:10-17), there is peace (5:1). In place of falling short of God’s glory through sin (3:23), there is hope of glory (5:2). In lieu of suffering under judgment (2:5-6), there is joy in tribulation because of what God produces through it (5:3). Rather than fearful uncertainty, there is assurance of God’s love (5:6-8) and joy in him (5:1), (Pratt 1817).

Paul argued that just as the actions of Adam had far-reaching consequences, so too did the actions of Jesus Christ. Paul said in 5:17,

“For if because of one man’s trespass, death reigned through that one man, much more will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man Jesus Christ.”

Just as justification is an act of God, so too, sanctification is an act of God. In sanctification, the Holy Spirit works in our hearts to purify and renew us, enabling us to do good works. While justification is a one-time event in the life of a sinner, sanctification is an ongoing process. Paul explained the process in three parts.

First, there is the destruction of sin’s dominion. Paul knew that sin still affected believers’ lives. But he also knew that just as Jesus Christ died on the cross and was raised to new life, Christians who are united to Christ have died to sin and have been raised to new life. Paul could not promise that sin would be gone from believers’ lives, but he did tell Christians that "sin will have no dominion over you since you are not under the law but under grace” (6:14).

Second, there is a continuing struggle with sin. John Murray said it best:

“The presence of sin in the believer involves conflict in his heart and life. If there is remaining, indwelling sin, there must be the conflict which Paul describes in 7:14ff. It is futile to argue that this conflict is not normal. If there is still sin to any degree in one who is indwelt by the Holy Spirit, then there is tension, yes, contradiction, within the heart of that person. Indeed, the more sanctified the person is, the more conformed he is to the image of his Savior, the more he must recoil against every lack of conformity to the holiness of God. The deeper his apprehension of the majesty of God, the more persistent his yearning for the attainment of the prize of the high calling in Christ Jesus, the more conscious will he be of the gravity of the sin which remains and the more poignant will be his detestation of it” (Murray 153).

Although sin can no longer be considered the Christian’s master, it still presents a struggle for the Christian. Having died to the law, we are free to live by the Spirit. But our knowledge of the law also serves to awaken our sinful natures, so that we find ourselves sinning, even though in our hearts we do not want to do it. As Paul said, “For I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God, in my inner being, but I see in my members another law waging war against the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members” (7:21-23).

Finally, our struggle with sin drives us to the Holy Spirit, who convicts us that “there is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (8:1) because Christ Jesus died and rose again on our behalf. He transforms our lives and renews them so that we are no longer controlled by the sinful nature but by the Spirit of God who lives in us. We will still groan in a world filled with sin, but we also know that we are “more than conquerors through him who loved us” (8:37).

The Historical Roles of Jews and Gentiles (9:1–11:36)

In previous chapters, Paul proved that salvation was the same for Jews and Gentiles, but in chapters 9–11, he also proved that they played a distinct role in salvation history. Paul made sure to underscore that election to salvation was by God’s choice, not because of any ethnic status. Salvation, said Paul, “depends not on human will or exertion, but on God, who has mercy” (9:16). Paul also showed how unbelief in Israel worked itself out in a vain commitment to finding righteousness through the law rather than through belief in Jesus Christ and his redemptive work. Rather than being the source of their salvation, Jesus Christ became a stumbling block. Paul saw in the unbelief of the Jews, a pattern in salvation history. In rejecting Jesus, the Jews opened the door for the Gentiles to accept him. And the salvation of the Gentiles would reawaken the desire of the Jews for salvation through Jesus Christ. In God’s plan, both Jew and Gentile, who were at one time disobedient to God, can now receive mercy through Jesus Christ.

Practical Instructions (12:1–15:13)

Because our salvation is accomplished, we can now offer our bodies as living sacrifices in a spiritual act of worship to God. This means that we live to serve others in the body of Christ. It means that we submit to those whom God has placed in authority over us, and live moral and pure lives so as not to incur their wrath. And it also means that we accept other Christians, whether strong or weak in the faith, and live in such a way as to build them up.

Final Greetings (15:14–16:27)

Paul spent the remaining portion of his letter on more personal matters. He stated his vision for ministry and his desire to visit Rome. He sent greetings to individual Romans and warned the church in Rome to beware of the enemies of the church. He sent greetings to the Romans from some of his other companions. And he ended with a doxology, praising God for his revelation of the gospel, and glorifying him forever through Jesus Christ.

First Corinthians

Paul wrote 1 Corinthians to correct several sins that arose from the Corinthians’ pride and self-importance. First Corinthians records Paul’s response to a troubling report from Chloe’s household. It also records his response to a letter the Corinthians Christians had written, asking for his advice on several matters.

First Corinthians is not the first letter Paul wrote to the Corinthian church. He wrote at least one prior letter to which he refers in 1 Corinthians 5:9. The letter we have, which we refer to as 1 Corinthians, contains the usual greetings at the beginning and end of the letter. In between, the bulk of the letter can be divided into two parts: a response to a report from Chloe’s household and a response to the Corinthians’ letter to Paul.

Introduction (1:1-9)

In his introduction, Paul identified himself as the writer of the letter along with Sosthenes, who may have been the ruler of the synagogue in Corinth when Paul first preached there (see Acts 18:17). Paul also used this introduction to thank God for the many ways Christ enriched the Corinthians. It should be noted that Paul started with thoughts of thanksgiving before he moved on to more troubling matters that he had to discuss with the Corinthians.

Response to a Report from Chloe’s Household (1:10–6:20)

Paul received a troubling report from Chloe's household regarding the Corinthian church (1:11). The Corinthian Christians had developed divisions among the group. Some followed one church leader. Others followed another. Some members of the church had such disagreements with others that they took their fellow church members to court. Others were rich and acted arrogantly toward the poor in their congregation and the poor in Jerusalem. Paul argued that they should view Jesus as their primary leader and view the apostles and other teachers as fellow servants. The Corinthians ran into trouble when they gave too much honor to the apostles and teachers instead of Christ. If the Corinthians focused on Christ, they would find true wisdom rather than be distracted by worldly values. For Christ is the “power of God and the wisdom of God” (1:24). Paul also admonished the Corinthians for their spiritual immaturity, calling them “mere infants in Christ.” (3:1)

The pride of the Corinthians also produced moral and ethical problems. In chapter 5, Paul mentioned a specific example of a man having a sexual relationship with his father’s wife—and the Corinthians took pride in their tolerance of this situation. Paul was unequivocal, commanding the Corinthians to “expel the wicked man from among you” (5:13). In their pride, the Corinthians stated, “Everything is permissible for me.” But Paul gave them a new perspective on this saying when he added, “but not everything is beneficial” and “I will not be mastered by anything” (6:12). Paul also made a case for the Corinthian church to exercise proper church discipline. Church members who willfully continued in sexual sin should be expelled. Church members who had grievances against other church members should bring the matter before fellow believers, rather than before civil courts (6:1-8)

Response to the Corinthians' Letter to Paul (7:1–16:12)

In 7:1 Paul turned to the matters the Corinthians wrote about. He first addressed the issue of marriage and divorce. Corinth had a reputation for sexual immorality, so it was not surprising that some members of the Corinthian church would be confused about sexual issues. Some advocated singleness for all Christians. Others advocated sexual abstinence even within marriage. Paul responded by affirming both marriage and singleness as honorable. For Paul, the sexual element is a necessary aspect of marriage. But Paul also said that singleness has great advantages since it allows believers to stay focused on the things of the Lord.

Paul also addressed a concern regarding food offered to idols. Corinthians were highly religious. They offered many sacrifices to their pagan gods. Some of the meat from these sacrifices was eaten at sacrificial feasts at the idol’s temple. The remaining meat was sold in the marketplace. Paul argued strongly against eating meat offered to idols, but not because he thought eating the meat was sinful. Rather he did not want the Corinthian Christians to wound the consciences of their brothers and sisters in Christ. And he put himself forward as an example to follow in this matter.

Paul addressed two concerns of the Corinthians regarding worship. The first was related to the use of head coverings in worship, and the second was related to their observation of the Lord’s Supper. In both cases, Paul made it clear that the Corinthians could not simply follow their own selfish ideas in their worship or their observation of the Lord’s Supper. He sought to stop their current practices. But he also sought to change the attitudes of their hearts.

The Corinthians were also confused about the use of spiritual gifts. Paul corrected their confusion by explaining that spiritual gifts should never puff up the bearers of those gifts. Rather, God gave gifts for the building up of the church as a whole. Those who exhibited spiritual gifts should use those gifts out of love for fellow members of the church. If they didn’t use their gifts out of love, the gifts were useless. In public worship, spiritual gifts should be restrained and only used in an orderly fashion.

Some Corinthian Christians denied that the bodies of believers who had died would be physically raised from the dead. This was a matter of concern for others in the Corinthian church. Paul showed how a denial of the resurrection of believers was a denial of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and, ultimately, a denial of the Christian faith and the hope we have in Christ.

Finally, Paul gave instructions regarding the collection the Corinthians were taking for God’s people in Jerusalem. He also made several personal requests and discussed arrangements for visiting them in the future.

Conclusion (16:13-23)

Paul concluded his letter by reminding the Corinthians to be watchful and stand firm. He wanted them to be strong and act like men while at the same time doing everything in love. He sent greetings from other churches and individuals. Lastly, he wrote a final greeting with his own hand, encouraging them in the faith and blessing them with the grace of the Lord Jesus.

Second Corinthians

Paul had previously written a letter that caused the Corinthian church much sorrow. After hearing of the Corinthians’ repentance, Paul wrote 2 Corinthians to express his joy and love for the Corinthians and to encourage continued loyalty to Jesus Christ and to himself as an apostle of Jesus Christ. Second Corinthians is a personal, emotional letter. Paul laid bare his heart to his brothers and sisters in Christ at Corinth. He reminded them of the divine comfort that Jesus Christ brings in the midst of suffering. He showed how God’s strength is manifested in human weakness. He showed the Corinthians his own weakness and frequent suffering for the gospel. And he reminded them of his love for all the churches and especially for them. In chapter 10, the tone of the letter becomes more severe as Paul defended his authority against false teachers, but the personal nature of the letter is still retained.

Salutation (1:1-2)

Paul opened the letter with his usual salutation in which he identified himself and his intended recipients and imparted a blessing on them (1:1-2). The end of the letter in 13:11-14 also fits Paul’s normal style, which included final greetings and words of encouragement to the church. Between the salutation and the greeting, the main body of Paul’s letter can be divided into three parts: Paul’s ministry, the collection for Jerusalem, and a defense against false apostles.

An Explanation of Paul’s Ministry (1:3–7:16)

Paul began this section with a very personal account of the suffering he endured for the gospel and the comfort he received from God. The Corinthians could sympathize with Paul’s suffering and would be more willing to hear Paul’s arguments later in the letter. Paul talked of his love for the Corinthians and his desire that they, too, might receive the comfort of God as they suffer for the sake of the gospel. Paul reminded the church in Corinth that his love for them had not diminished even though he did not return to Corinth as he had previously planned. It would have been a painful visit (2:1), and Paul decided to spare them the pain.

Paul also spoke of another painful experience. A member of the Corinthian church had wronged Paul and had been disciplined by the church. Paul assured the church that the discipline was sufficient and that he had forgiven the man of the offense. He encouraged the church to forgive the man and restore him to fellowship. But others in the church had wronged Paul more seriously. They continued to doubt his apostleship, which called into question his entire ministry. Paul could not allow their doubts about him to go unchallenged. So, Paul defended his ministry as having been initiated and empowered by God himself. He was made Christ’s ambassador (5:20) to preach not himself but to preach Jesus Christ as Lord (4:5).

The Collection for Christians in Jerusalem (8:1–9:15)

Christians in Jerusalem were struggling because of a famine in Judea. Churches outside of Jerusalem, including the Corinthian church, had made a commitment to send money to help them. But the Corinthian church had not followed through on its commitment. Paul reminded them that it was a privilege to serve the body of Christ in this way. He used the Macedonian churches and even Jesus Christ as examples of sacrificial giving. And he called on the Corinthian church to show its love and gratitude to Christ by supplying the needs of God’s people.

Defense Against False Apostles (10:1-13:10)

Many successful people were part of the Corinthian church. They had set ideas about what made them successful and what defined a good leader. They expected trained speakers and were willing to pay them a fitting salary for their services. The problem for Paul was that he did not fit their definition of a good leader. Paul was not trained in rhetoric and chose to support himself while he ministered among them. This harmed his credibility among the Corinthians. Paul addressed this problem by defending his ministry as being legitimately ordained by Christ himself and by describing his sacrifices for the sake of the gospel. He also warned the Corinthian Christian not to look on the surface of things (10:7). Their standards for judging the leadership of their church should be different from the standards the world sets.

Conclusion

Paul discredited the false apostles as “deceitful workmen, masquerading as apostles of Christ” (11:13). He warned them that “their end will be what their actions deserve” (11:14). Paul informed the Corinthians that he was planning to visit them for a third time. He warned them that the visit might not be pleasant and encouraged them to examine themselves before he came.

Galatians

Paul wrote Galatians to help the believers in Galatia resist false teachers who taught that faith in Christ was not enough for salvation, but that obedience to the law must be added. Believe it or not, this was a popular idea in Paul’s day. It is popular in our day, too. People do not like to be told that they must rely completely on someone outside of themselves for their salvation. John R. W. Stott put it best:

“What is there about the cross of Christ which angers the world and stirs them up to persecute those who preach it? Just this: Christ died on the cross for us sinners, becoming a curse for us (Gal. 3:13). So the cross tells us some very unpalatable truths about ourselves, namely that we are sinners under the righteous curse of God’s law and we cannot save ourselves. Christ bore our sin and curse precisely because we could gain release from them in no other way. If we could have been forgiven by our own good works, by being circumcised and keeping the law, we may be quite sure that there would have been no cross. Every time we look at the cross Christ seems to say to us, ‘I am here because of you. It is your sin I am bearing, your curse I am suffering, your debt I am paying, your death I am dying.’ Nothing in history or in the universe cuts us down to size like the cross. All of us have inflated views of ourselves, especially in self-righteousness, until we have visited a place called Calvary. It is there, at the foot of the cross, that we shrink to our true size.

And of course men do not like it. They resent the humiliation of seeing themselves as God sees them and as they really are. They prefer their comfortable illusions. So they steer clear of the cross. They construct a Christianity without the cross, which relies for salvation on their works and not on Jesus Christ’s. They do not object to Christianity so long as it is not the faith of Christ crucified. But Christ crucified they detest. And if preachers preach Christ crucified, they are opposed, ridiculed, persecuted. Why? Because of the wounds which they inflict on men’s pride” (Galatians 179).

Paul’s argument in Galatians for justification by faith alone apart from works of the law is as relevant today as it was 2000 years ago. Lives of righteousness can only be obtained through union with Christ through his Holy Spirit. As with his other epistles, Paul included a greeting and postscript. Between these, he defended his apostolic authority, laid a theological argument for justification by faith alone, and gave some practical advice for living by grace through the power of the Holy Spirit.

Greeting (1:1-5)

Paul began by identifying himself as an apostle. He did this in other letters, too, but in this letter, he added an important point. Paul’s apostleship was not dependent on man, but rather, it depended solely on Jesus Christ. Paul’s apostleship, like our salvation, could only come from Jesus. After he identified his readers, Paul greeted them with a blessing that emphasized the work that Jesus did on the cross for all believers. This will be Paul’s emphasis throughout the letter because this is what is at stake in Paul’s fight against the false teachers in Galatia. To give in to the false teachers would mean giving up on the cross.

The Problem (1:6-10)

Paul quickly identified the main problem in the Galatian churches to be false teachers spreading a different gospel than the one Paul proclaimed to them. The false teachers proclaimed a legalistic gospel that demanded outward obedience to Jewish law through circumcision. Paul opposed this by proclaiming a gospel of justification by faith alone and declaring that the false gospel was “really no gospel at all” (1:7) and that anyone who believed the false gospel was in serious danger.

Historical Accounts to prove Paul's authority (1:11–2:21)

Paul asserted his authority to determine that the false teachers were spreading a false gospel by pointing to three historical events. He referred to his call and training by Christ himself as proof of his apostleship. He also pointed to the confirmation of his apostleship by the leaders of the church in Jerusalem. And finally, he showed proof of his authority by describing his opposition to Peter, who was also an apostle but was in error.

Theological Proofs (3:1–4:31)

Paul laid out several theological arguments to prove his gospel of justification by faith alone. He told the Galatians to look at their own experience, pointing to the presence of the Holy Spirit in their lives based on what they believed, not on any works they may have done. Paul said the same was true of Abraham. Abraham “believed the Lord, and he credited it to him as righteousness” (Gen. 15:6; c.f. Gal. 3:6). Paul also showed the Galatians that their current lack of joy was a result of their adherence to a different, false gospel. And finally, Paul turned again to Abraham, showing that Isaac was born because of the promise, while Ishmael was born when Abraham tried to secure the promise through his own effort. Ishmael represented all who turned to the false gospel that relied on human effort.

Practical Exhortations (5:1–6:10)

Paul exhorted the Galatians to rely on the Holy Spirit to experience freedom from sin and freedom to live in obedience to God. Those who live by faith through the power of the Holy Spirit will experience God’s blessings, but judgment will come to those who live according to a different gospel. Paul’s argument was not antinomian. Rather, Paul argued that the only way to live obediently was to walk by the Spirit. He said in 5:16-18,

“But I say, walk by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the flesh. For the desires of the flesh are against the Spirit, and the desires of the Spirit are against the flesh, for these are opposed to each other, to keep you from doing the things you want to do. But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the law.”

This is why he could later say, “fulfill the law of Christ” (6:2). Paul was not against the law in its proper place, but he was adamantly opposed to a form of the law that sought to replace the cross of Christ.

Postscript (6:11-18)

Paul concluded his epistle to the Galatians by writing with his own hand. He directed the Galatians’ attention to the large letters he used in his own handwriting. He may have used large letters because of poor eyesight. In fact, this may be the bodily ailment he mentioned in 4:13. Regardless, Paul ended his letter, like he ended many of his letters, with a personal note written by his own hand. In his final exhortation, he repeated that he would not boast in the flesh but only in the cross of Jesus Christ (6:14).

Ephesians

Paul wrote to teach the Christians in Ephesus and surrounding cities in Asia Minor the blessing of being part of the church of Jesus Christ. Paul described the church as God’s new humanity, reconciled to God through Jesus Christ, and transformed into a united community of believers who strengthen each other and stand as a light in a dark world waiting for the final redemption brought by Christ as a bride waits for her husband.

Salutation (1:1-2)

Paul identified himself as an apostle and the author of the letter. He emphasized that his apostleship came by the will of God. Throughout the centuries, and even our own day, men have claimed to be apostles of Christ Jesus, but in reality, apostleship can only come by the will of God. Paul also identified the members of the church in Ephesus as faithful saints and as the recipients of his letter.

The Blessings of the Church in Christ (1:3-23)

Paul praised the “God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” for giving his people every spiritual blessing in Christ. He chose his people from before the foundation of the world. He redeemed them through the Son and sealed them with the Holy Spirit. As chosen, forgiven, and sealed people, we are united with Christ and can experience all the blessings that he brings. Paul also prayed that the Ephesians would be further enlightened so that they would have even more reason to praise God for his present and future blessings, and so that they would experience unity and fellowship with all the saints in Ephesus.

Understanding the Blessings of Belonging to Christ’s Church (2:1–3:21)

Paul further elaborated on the blessings of the church by showing how believers are made alive in Christ through God’s grace. They are united to Christ, unified with each other, and empowered to persevere in the faith. Even Gentile believers and Jewish believers are united to Christ through the gospel and are all full heirs of God’s blessings. God’s church is wondrously blessed, and Paul made sure the Christians in Ephesus understood that. He called on the Ephesians to recognize their immense blessings in Christ and that being rooted and grounded in love, they may “comprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length and height and depth” of that love (3:18). He wanted them to know a love that surpasses knowledge so that they “may be filled with all the fullness of God (3:19).

Living in the Blessings of the Church (4:1–6:20)

Proper understanding of God’s blessings produces proper living according to those blessings. Paul stressed that believers should live in unity with one another and should use the gifts God gave them to build up the body of Christ. He taught them to respect those in authority over them, whether that be an ecclesiastical or domestic authority. And he stressed that they should live according to their new natures in Christ, rather than according to their old natures. Paul encouraged the Ephesians to fight against the spiritual forces of evil in the world, relying on the strength of the Holy Spirit and the armor which he provides them.

Final Greetings (6:21-24)

Paul concluded his letter like he concluded many of his letters, by blessing the Ephesians. He also commended to them Tychicus, who was the bearer of the letter. His final blessing at the end of the letter highlights his emphasis on Christian fellowship in the church based on the love of Jesus Christ.

Philippians

Paul considered the Philippians to be true friends. He opened up to them about his suffering and the effect it had on him. He also encouraged them to bear with their own suffering and to find joy in their faithfulness to Christ, their unity with each other, and humble service to all. Paul’s letter to the Philippians shows the deep bond that existed between Paul and the Philippian church. He expressed joy for their faith and for the love that they shared as brothers and sisters in Christ. He also expressed concern for them, noting their struggle with persecution and warning them about false teaching. He pleaded with them to follow the example of Christ’s humility and maintain a spirit of unity as they served Christ and one another.

Salutation (1:1-2)

It is interesting that Paul described himself as a servant of Christ Jesus rather than as an apostle. Paul had a deep friendship with the Philippians and had no need to stress his apostolic authority. Rather, he emphasized humble service, a theme that will occur throughout the letter. Paul mentioned himself and Timothy as the senders of the letter. He identified the church at Philippi as the recipients, and he described the church as a mature church, having both overseers and deacons as office bearers.

Confidence and Affection (1:3-11)

As he did with many of his other letters, Paul followed the salutation by expressing his thankfulness for the believers to whom he was writing. In this letter, Paul expressed his love for the Philippians and his confidence in their faith. Paul considered them partners in the gospel. The Philippian church supported him financially (4:15), and shared the joys and sorrows of Paul’s ministry (1:7).

Advancing the Gospel (1:12–2:30)

Paul discussed how he and the Philippians advanced the gospel. He explained how his imprisonment provided opportunities to preach the gospel to the palace guard and how his chains emboldened other Christians to speak about Christ. He declared his hope that his gospel ministry would thrive in the future. Paul also described how the gospel was advanced in the lives of the Philippians. He called on them to imitate Christ’s humility, considering others more significant than themselves (2:3). He challenged them to conduct themselves in a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ and to persevere in their calling.

Resisting Error (3:1–4:1)

As in other cities where Paul ministered, the threat of legalism loomed large. Paul called the Philippians to resist the error of legalists who put their confidence in the flesh, thinking that they could obtain and maintain their salvation through their obedience to the law. Paul also called the Philippians to resist those who overreacted to the legalists by claiming the moral law had no merit for the Christian life. Instead, Paul exhorted the Philippians to live by grace in the salvation they received in Christ and to follow Paul’s example of pressing on. As Paul put it, “Not that I have already obtained this or am already perfect, but I press on to make it my own, because Christ Jesus has made me his own” (3:12).

Exhortations (4:2-9)

Paul then applied his earlier exhortations to specific situations within the Philippian church. He encouraged Euodia and Syntyche to work out whatever disagreement they had with each other. He encouraged all the Philippians to rejoice in their salvation and focus on the positive elements of their Christian faith, bringing their concerns and petitions before God. He summarized his encouragement to them by saying, “Finally brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy of praise, think about these things” (4:8).

Thanksgiving (4:10-20)

Paul reminded the Philippians that the secret to living with plenty and hunger, abundance and need was to find contentment in Jesus Christ. Paul said that he could endure anything with his eyes focused on Jesus Christ, who strengthened him. Paul gave thanks for the Philippians’ renewed concern for him and for their partnership in advancing the gospel, but even here Paul’s main concern was not the financial help the Philippians sent him, but rather that the gift represented the increased fruit of the Philippians’ faith, a fruit that increased to their credit.

Final Greeting and Benediction (4:21-23)

Paul concluded this letter as usual with greetings and blessings. It would have encouraged the Philippians to know that although Paul was in prison in Rome, even members of Caesar’s household could be counted among the saints.

Colossians

Paul wrote to the Colossians to affirm the supremacy of Jesus Christ over all spiritual and earthly powers and to proclaim his sufficiency in all things pertaining to salvation. Paul opposed a specific false teaching that combined Greek philosophy with Jewish legalism and the veneration of angelic beings. But in opposing it, Paul spent more time proclaiming the supremacy and sufficiency of Christ rather than tearing down specific elements of the false teaching.

Introduction (1:1-14)

Paul gave a traditional introduction, where he introduced himself as well as Timothy as the sender, and the Colossian church as the receiver of the letter. He encouraged the Colossians, giving thanks for their faithfulness and assuring them of his prayers to God on their behalf.

Christ’s Supremacy (1:15-23)

Paul knew that the only way Christians could resist the falsehoods being taught in Colossae was to understand the supremacy of Jesus Christ in all things. Paul praised Christ’s supremacy in two ways. He praised Jesus Christ as Lord over all creation. Jesus did not fit the Greek philosophical conception of a pantheon of greater and lesser gods. All the fullness of God dwells in Jesus Christ. He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. He created all things. He is before all things. And through him all things hold together. Paul also praised the supremacy of Jesus Christ in our redemption. He said in 1:19-20, “For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross.” Jesus Christ alone was able to reconcile the world to himself.

Paul’s Ministry to the Colossians (1:24–2:7)

Paul had no personal contact with most of the Colossian Christians (2:1). Despite that, he commended himself to them as an apostle of Jesus Christ, superior to the false teachers just as Christ was superior to the false gods. He even declared that he was given a stewardship from God for the Colossians (1:25). Paul suffered much and struggled hard to present the gospel of Jesus Christ in its fullness to the Colossians. And his work was not in vain. Paul also rejoiced to see the firmness of the Colossians’ faith in Jesus Christ.

The Supremacy and Sufficiency of Christ (2:8-23)

Jesus Christ is Lord over every power and authority in the universe. As Lord, he is sufficient to save all those whom the Father gives him and to empower them for holy living. The false teachers and those who follow their “empty deceit” (2:8) are held captive by false gods who are neither sufficient to save or able to empower. The Colossian Christians did not need a circumcision made with hands since they had a circumcision made without hands—the circumcision of Christ. Since Christ is all-sufficient, Paul exhorted the Colossians to let no one pass judgment on them because of the way they followed or did not follow external rules. They have the appearance of wisdom but do nothing to stop the indulgence of the flesh.

Living in Christ (3:1–4:6)

The false teachers in Colossae seemed to be very concerned about proper Christian living. Paul shared their concern. He may even have shared some of their emphases. He emphasized the heavenly over against the earthly when he exhorted the Colossians in 3:2 to “Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on the earth.” He spoke against indulging the desires of the flesh and told the Colossians in 3:5 to “put to death therefore what is earthly in you.” But the difference was that the false teachers tried to accomplish these admirable goals in their own strength. Paul made sure the Colossians knew that Christian living required continual, vital union with Christ. “Christ,” said Paul, “is all and in all” (3:11). Proper Christian living can only be accomplished in the strength of Jesus Christ.

Final Greetings (4:7-18)

Paul ended his letter to the Colossians like he ended his other letters. He sent greetings to the Colossians from the many people who were with him in prison, and he gave instructions for reading and distributing his letters. The last paragraph of the letter was written by Paul’s own hand.

First Thessalonians

Paul wrote to the Thessalonians after receiving a report from Timothy regarding some problems that had arisen in the church. Paul wrote to assure the Thessalonians of his love for them and to show them how to live in this age with a proper perspective regarding Christ’s return. After identifying himself and greeting the Thessalonians (1:1), Paul turned to the major portions of his letter, which focused on his relationship with the Thessalonians and on instructions for the church.

Salutation and Paul’s relationship with the Thessalonians (1:1-3:13)

Paul reminded the Thessalonians of his relationship with them based on the gospel of Jesus Christ. He said, “We give thanks to God always for all of you, constantly mentioning you in our prayers, remembering before our God and Father your work of faith and labor of love and steadfastness of hope in our Lord Jesus Christ” (1:2-3). Paul praised them for their endurance in the face of severe suffering. He reminded them of his selfless work among them and the example he set for them. He gave thanks that they recognized his authority as an apostle. He expressed the joy he felt at hearing Timothy’s encouraging report about them. And he explained how he longed to visit them again and prayed that God would make that possible.

Instructions for the church and Closing Remarks (4:1–5:28)

Paul reminded the Thessalonians that he had the authority to instruct them. Then he warned them to guard against sin, particularly those sins which arose from the false teachings in the church. And he exhorted them to remain obedient until Christ returns. He instructed them to be sexually pure. He praised them for their brotherly love and encouraged them to “walk in a manner worthy of God, who calls you into his own kingdom and glory” (2:12b). Paul made sure the Thessalonians correctly understood that the Lord’s coming will be like a thief in the night and that even those who die before he comes will be saved. Paul also exhorted the Thessalonians to live holy lives as soldiers in Christ’s kingdom, wearing the armor of God. Paul ended his letter by summarizing additional ethical instructions and giving the Thessalonians a blessing.

Second Thessalonians

In his second letter to the Thessalonians, Paul reinforced the message of his first letter regarding Christ’s return and the importance of living responsibly in this age.

Salutation and Thanksgiving and Encouragement (1:1-12)

Paul began this letter in his usual way by identifying himself and the church in Thessalonica to whom he was writing. He then moved to the main body of his letter, where he again expressed his thanks for the Thessalonians’ faith and love, especially in the face of persecution. He even told the Thessalonians that he boasted about them. He said in 1:4, “we ourselves boast about you in the churches of God for your steadfastness and faith in all your persecutions and in the afflictions that you are enduring.” As in the first letter, Paul encouraged the Thessalonians by saying how he shared their struggles in prayer.

Instructions and Closing Remarks (2:1–3:18)

Paul continued to instruct the Thessalonians about Christ’s return and argued against the false prophets who taught that Christ has already returned. He also asked the Thessalonians to pray for him and his ministry. And he repeated his exhortation against idleness, exhorting the Thessalonians to “not grow weary in doing good” (3:13).

First Timothy

Paul wrote his first letter to Timothy to guide Timothy in opposing false teachers in Ephesus. Paul wrote the letter to Timothy rather than to the church and included much personal encouragement to Timothy. Paul also included doctrinal statements, which would have helped Timothy oppose the false teachers. Paul included instructions for the church and guidelines for Timothy as he opposed false teachers and organized the church.

Salutation and Dealing with False Teachers (1:1-20)

Paul identified himself as the author and Timothy as the recipient of the letter. It is interesting that Paul highlighted his apostleship in his greeting. Paul needed to exert his authority as an apostle because apostolic authority was needed to stand up to false teachers. False teaching had arisen in Ephesus. Paul asked Timothy to remain there to combat it. The false teaching was a form of legalism that misinterpreted the Mosaic law. Paul told Timothy that “the law is good if one uses it lawfully” (1:8). But false teachers were abusing the law, using it to condemn followers of Christ rather than using it properly to condemn sinners.

Instructions for the Church (2:1–3:16)

The false teachers had disrupted the peace of the church in Ephesus. He discussed Timothy’s responsibilities as Paul’s representative, and he encouraged Timothy to remain strong. False teachers were disrupting the church’s worship, so Paul responded to their challenge by discussing how prayer and worship should be conducted. He gave specific instructions regarding the role of men and women in corporate worship and the qualifications for overseers and deacons. Paul was hoping to visit the church soon, but he wanted to make sure that even before he came, the church would behave properly as the household of God, which he described as “the church of the living God, a pillar and buttress of the truth” (3:15).

Guidelines for Timothy and Final Exhortations (4:1–6:21)

Paul responded to false teachers who advocated asceticism, or the denial of physical pleasures, by proclaiming in 4:4, “For everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanksgiving.” Paul instructed Timothy to point out this truth to the Christians in Ephesus. He encouraged Timothy to minister diligently in these circumstances.

Paul also had advice for Timothy regarding specific groups within the church who had become victims of the false teachers. He gave specific instructions for how Timothy should minister to widows, elders, and slaves. He challenged the motives of false teachers, who disrupted the church for financial gain. Rather than being divisive and greedy, Paul encouraged Timothy to exemplify “godliness with contentment” (6:6). He personally exhorted Timothy to be above reproach in his ministry and to “fight the good fight of the faith” (6:12). Paul concluded his letter by reminding Timothy one more time to guard the deposit entrusted to him and to avoid those who would lead others away from the faith by their supposed “knowledge.”

Second Timothy

Paul wrote this letter to ask Timothy to visit him as he neared the end of his life and to support Timothy as he resisted the false teachers in Ephesus. Paul wanted to encourage Timothy in his work in Ephesus. But Paul also needed encouragement. He was aware that his death was near, and he longed for Timothy to visit him before he died.

Salutation and Exhortations (1:1–2:26)

Paul identified himself as the author and Timothy as the recipient. He followed the salutation with a benediction. Paul reflected on Timothy’s background and his early training in the faith. He encouraged Timothy to be bold in proclaiming his faith and stand firm against false teachers. Paul also reflected on some of his former associates who had since deserted him, and on Onesiphorus, who ministered to him despite the hardships it brought. Paul encouraged Timothy to prove himself to be a worker approved by God and to oppose false teachers and others who had turned away from the true faith.

Opposing False Teachers through the Word (3:1-4:5)

Paul reminded Timothy that the Christian life was often difficult. He warned Timothy of terrible times in the last days when people will think only of themselves and how to satisfy their sinful desires. He exhorted Timothy again to stand firm, making his foundation God’s Word and preaching that Word in season and out of season, despite the persecutions that may come.

Personal Remarks to Timothy and Final Greetings (4:6-22)

Paul was aware that his death was imminent, and he urged Timothy to visit him soon. He reflected on the many people who deserted him and but also expressed the hope that “the Lord will rescue me from every evil deed and bring me safely into his heavenly kingdom” (4:18). Paul closed his letter with personal greetings and a benediction.

Titus

Paul wrote to Titus to encourage him in his work on the island of Crete. Paul had asked Titus to organize the church there, to resist false teachers, and to instruct believers in Christian living. Paul wrote to Titus to encourage him to finish the work, which was difficult. Titus encountered false teaching that was like the false teaching Timothy opposed in Ephesus. Titus needed encouragement and direction, which Paul provided in this letter.

Salutation and Instructions for Organizing the Churches (1:1–2:15)

Paul identified himself as the author. He explained his role as an apostle and summarized the message he was called to proclaim. He also identified Titus as the recipient and gave a benediction. Paul then gave instructions to Titus on how to organize the churches on Crete. One of the first things Titus needed to do was to ordain qualified elders to oversee the churches. Sound overseers were needed to silence false teachers who were deceiving the churches. Paul urged Titus to apply sound doctrine to specific groups within the churches, including older and younger Christians, men and women, and even to slaves.

Instructions for Titus and Conclusion (3:1-15)

Paul gave general, ethical instructions for all Christians. However, he did not ground those instructions in our own ability to do good. Rather, he taught that our good works are grounded in the grace and mercy of Jesus Christ, saying that God our Savior “saved us, not because of good works done by us in righteousness, but according to his own mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewal of the Holy Spirit” (3:5). Paul concluded his letter by encouraging Titus to fulfill his responsibilities on Crete and by giving some final greetings and a benediction.

Philemon

Paul wrote the letter to Philemon to plead for forgiveness on behalf of Onesimus, a runaway slave. The letter to Philemon is Paul’s shortest letter and only addresses one specific issue. Paul asked Philemon to receive Onesimus, a former slave, as a Christian brother.

Introduction and Thanksgiving (1-7)

Paul identified himself as the primary author and Philemon as the primary recipient of the letter. He noted that the letter also came from Timothy. He also addressed the letter to Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Colossae as secondary recipients. In his epistles, Paul often followed his initial salutation with a section of thanksgiving. In this letter, he gave thanks for Philemon’s faith in the Lord and his expressions of love for all the saints.

Paul’s Request and Conclusion (8-25)

Paul presented himself as an advocate for Onesimus and a dear friend of Philemon. Paul made a personal request to Philemon that he forgive the wrongs that Onesimus had done to him, and that he welcome Onesimus not as a runaway slave, but as a brother in Christ. Paul encouraged Philemon to see Onesimus not according to the social norms established by culture, but rather according to the countercultural norms established by the gospel. Paul concluded by sharing some final greetings and expressing his hope that he would be released from prison soon and would soon be able to visit Philemon in person.

Application

We can best apply the Pauline epistles to our lives by focusing on some of his central teachings. We will deal specifically with four of his teachings, as summarized by Tremper Longman (206-7).

The Lordship of Jesus Christ

Jesus is the living Lord. Paul taught that Jesus Christ not only died for us, but was raised to new life for us, and now rules over us as Lord. Colossians 3:1 says, “If then you have been raised with Christ, seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God” (see also Romans 1:4, 1 Corinthians 9:1; 15:8).

Christ is Lord over us and our salvation. We have been crucified with Christ and now live by faith in him (see Gal. 2:20). We can be content in whatever circumstances he places us (Phil. 4:11), knowing that all things are under his control and that nothing can snatch us out of his hand.

Christ is Lord over the church. As its head, he rules over the church and determines the role each member plays in the local church. He sets the qualifications for the leadership of the church (see 1 Timothy and Titus). We honor him as Lord through corporate praise and worship. (Eph. 5:19-20).

Christ is also Lord over all creation. Paul said in Ephesians 1:22-23, “And he put all things under his feet and gave him as head over all things to the church, which is his body, and fulness of him who fills all in all.” We honor Jesus Christ by being obedient to him. We are to live as children of the light doing what pleases the Lord. (Eph. 5:8-10)

The Two Natures of Christ

Jesus Christ is both divine (Rom. 9:5; Phil. 2:11) and human (Rom. 5:17-19, 8:3; Phil. 2:7; 2 Cor. 4:6) He is the only one who could bear God’s justice and pay for our sin. He is the image of the invisible, and God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him (Col. 1:15-20) He will not share his glory with another. Modern religions that seek to add Jesus Christ to their list of gods are unacceptable. Modern relativism that demands we consider Christianity as one good religion among many is also unacceptable. Rather, we have a unique Savior, who is both God and man. In his humanity, Jesus Christ can sympathize with our weakness, and in his divinity, he has provided fully for our salvation.

The Human Condition

Human beings are incapable of earning God’s favor. Everything we do is the result of God working in us through his mercy and grace (Phil. 2:12-13). Paul said in Colossian 2:13, “And you, who were dead in your trespasses and the uncircumcision of your flesh, God made alive together with him, having forgiven us all our trespasses.” God’s mercy makes it possible for us to present our bodies “as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God” (Rom. 12:1)

Gratitude follows grace. Paul spent much time on ethical instruction. But all of Paul’s ethics fit under the umbrella of gratitude for God’s grace already given. As we live ethically in this world, we must realize that we are God’s “workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand, that we should walk in them” (Eph. 2:10).

Paul’s Eschatological Perspective.

All Christians must learn to live within the already-but-not-yet tension of Christ’s kingdom. His kingdom has already been established, and yet it is still to come. We all await Christ’s return, when the riches of the age to come will be fully realized (Col. 3:1-2). But for now, we need to accept the provisional nature of the present age and live accordingly. Paul put it this way:

“This is what I mean brothers: the appointed time has grown very short. From now on, let those who have wives live as though they had none, and those who mourn as though they were not mourning, and those who rejoice as though they were not rejoicing, and those who buy as though they had no goods, and those who deal with the world as though they had no dealings with it. For the present form of this world is passing away” (1 Cor. 7:29-31).

Paul taught us to live in this age but to do so with an eye toward the future. He said, “If in Christ we have hope in this life only, we are of all people most to be pitied” (1 Cor. 15:19). He also said that Christ “gave himself for our sins to deliver us from the present evil age (Gal. 1:4). Like the Galatians, Christians today can be tempted to underestimate how much of the age to come is already present in this age. On the other hand, like the Thessalonians, Christians today can also overestimate how much of the age to come was already present in this age.

It is important for Christians to keep this age and the age to come in a proper perspective. With his first coming, Jesus began the renewal of the entire universe. While we still struggle with sin, we also know that the new creation that Christ inaugurated already brings many blessings to the people of God. We can live in this sin-filled world with an eye to the glorious new creation.

4

The General Epistles

Paul’s epistles often overshadow the other epistles in the New Testament that were written by James, Peter, John, Jude, and the author to the Hebrews. But the General Epistles are vital to the New Testament as they confirm the teachings of the Pauline epistles and as they reveal truths and provide perspectives not found in the Pauline material.

Background

Although the General Epistles are often grouped together, they were written by different authors to different audiences using various literary techniques. It will be helpful to spend some time discussing some of these differences.

Genre

As epistles, many of them follow the familiar epistolary format. They begin with a salutation listing the author and the intended audience. The body of the letter follows that. And the letter is concluded with final exhortations, greetings, and a benediction. However, because these letters are written by different authors, their form can vary from letter to letter. Some authors follow the epistolary format more closely than others. And writers like John follow it more closely in some of his letters and more loosely in others.

Other literary forms are also found within the General Epistles. The book of James has been variously considered an epistle, a sermon, a form of Wisdom Literature, a diatribe, and a paraenesis (Pratt 2005). There are certainly elements of each of these literary forms within James’ work, even though it would be a stretch to force all of the James material into one of these forms. The book of Hebrews, likewise, has been described as a sermon. Many of the General Epistles also contain sub-genres like poetry, autobiography, persuasive arguments, and theological exposition.

Authors

Some authors of the General Epistles identified themselves, but others did not. The challenge for biblical scholars is to determine who the most likely author was for each of these books. In some cases, the author can be determined with some certainty, but that is not true in every case.

The Author of Hebrews

For centuries, Paul was thought to be the author of the book of Hebrews. This was especially true in the Eastern Church, which held to Pauline authorship from an early date. The idea of Pauline authorship was resisted in the West until about the 4th century when Jerome and Augustine leaned toward accepting the position of Pauline authorship held in the East. However, even here, Augustine acknowledged that many in the West disputed Pauline authorship and concluded that in the end, it really didn’t matter who the author was since the book itself was already widely used in the churches (Carson and Moe 601).

Today, most scholars believe that someone other than Paul wrote Hebrews. The writing style and the content of the teaching differ from that of Paul’s other writings. The author of Hebrews also included himself as a disciple of the apostles in Hebrews 2:3. This would have been a strange comment from Paul, who often made a point of establishing his own apostolic authority. Other authors have been proposed, such as Apollos, Barnabas, or Priscilla (Kistemaker 6-8), but no arguments have been convincing. One interesting theory is that Paul wrote the original letter in the Hebrew language and that either Clement of Alexandria or Luke translated it into Greek using a more polished style of Greek than Paul normally used (Attridge 1). However, this theory has no external support, so it must remain merely a theory.

We do know that the author was male. In 11:32, in the original Greek, the author used a masculine participle to refer to himself. It is also evident that he came to faith as a result of the ministry of the apostles (2:3). His writing style shows that he was a skilled author of Hellenistic literature. He also had a thorough knowledge of the Old Testament, especially as it was translated in the Greek Septuagint. He knew his readers personally and cared deeply for them, so he must have had some sort of ministry among the Jewish diaspora. He was also an acquaintance of Timothy (13:23). This internal evidence is about all we know of the author. In the end, we must be left to conclude with Origen when he said, “But who wrote this epistle, in truth God knows” (Carson and Moo 601).

James

Although numerous men named James were mentioned in the Bible, the author of this epistle was almost certainly James the brother of Jesus Christ. The other men who were named James in the New Testament were either too obscure to be seriously considered, or in the case of James the son of Zebedee, died too early to have had an opportunity to write an epistle. Another point in favor of James the brother of Jesus as the author is the similarity between the Greek text found in the epistle of James and the Greek spoken by James, the brother of Jesus, in Acts 15:13-21. (Carson and Moo 622).

James, the brother of Jesus, was one of four of Jesus’ brothers. Jesus’ other brothers were Joseph, Simon, and Judas. James also had at least two sisters. (Matt. 13:55-56). James was skeptical of Jesus during Jesus’ life on earth (John 7:5), but he became a follower of Jesus shortly after Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 1:14). Jesus even appeared to James before his ascension (1 Cor. 15:7). James became a leader of the Jerusalem church and presided at the council of Jerusalem, mentioned in Acts 15. He was also called James the Just, referring to his zeal for the law of God and his devotion to prayer. He was martyred in A.D. 62 in Jerusalem (Powell 427).

Peter

The apostle Peter wrote both epistles that bear his name. He reveals an eye-witness acquaintance with the earthly ministry of Jesus. The speeches of Peter recorded in the gospels show a similar style to the writing of the two epistles of Peter. Peter was a fisherman from Galilee and considered uneducated. But his epistles show an acquaintance with the Septuagint and represent a polished Greek style. However, there was a 30-year gap between when Peter gave up fishing to when he wrote his epistles, so he could easily have acquired the skills necessary to write these epistles. Some differences in the style of Peter’s two epistles can be noted, but it is possible to explain these differences if Peter used different scribes to compose the two epistles.

Peter was a native of Galilee and one of the twelve disciples of Jesus. He was originally named Simon, but Jesus gave him the name Peter (Matt. 16:18), which is translated “rock.” He was also called Cephas, which is the Aramaic version of Peter (John 1:42). Peter and his brother Andrew made their living as fishermen. That is what they were doing when Jesus called them. Peter lived with his wife and mother-in-law in Capernaum, which was on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. Interestingly, when the gospel writers listed the twelve disciples, they always listed Peter first (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:16). Peter, along with James and John, was part of Jesus’ inner circle. Jesus took only those three when he raised Jairus’s daughter from the dead, when he was transfigured on the mountaintop, and when he prayed in Gethsemane (Powell 777). Peter had an outspoken personality, being shown frequently to be the first one to speak or act among the disciples. Peter was the one who spoke to the crowd at Pentecost (Acts 2). Peter was also the one who was given a vision of clean and unclean animals (Acts 10), opening the Church to Gentiles as well as Jews. Tradition holds that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero around 64-68 A.D. (Powell 778). John 21:18-19 indicates that Peter would die with outstretched arms. Tradition holds that when he was martyred, he was crucified upside down (Powell 784).

John

The gospel of John and the three letters ascribed to John are so similar in style, diction, and content that they almost certainly were written by the same person. While the gospel of John and the three letters were written anonymously, the early church consistently attributed these works to the apostle John, and there is no strong reason to reject their judgment.

John and his brother James were sons of Zebedee. They were given the nickname “sons of thunder,” which probably was a reference to rather forceful, even brash, personalities. They were both called by Jesus to be his disciples while they were fishing. When Jesus called them, they left their father Zebedee in the boat and followed immediately. Zebedee had hired servants (Mark 1:20, which probably means that John and James came from a prosperous family. James and John, along with Peter, were considered to be part of Jesus’ inner circle. John himself was called the beloved disciple (John 13:23). It seems as though James and John wanted to retain a special place with Jesus even after Jesus inaugurated his kingdom since they asked, through their mother, to be given places on Jesus right and left hands (Matt. 20:20-23). After Jesus’ ascension, John was considered to be one of the pillars of the Jerusalem church (Gal. 2:6-10). Church tradition holds that John moved to Ephesus, where he wrote his three epistles. He was later exiled to the island of Patmos, where he wrote Revelation (Carson and Moo 700-707). It is thought that John lived a long life and died a peaceful death in Ephesus, probably around A.D. 98 (Barry The Death of John the Apostle).

Jude

Jude identified himself in his epistle as a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James. He was likely referring to James, the brother of Jesus, which would make Jude also a brother of Jesus. His original name would have been Judas. Jude is simply a shortened form of Judas. He did not originally believe in Jesus as the Messiah (Mark 3:21) but became a believer after the resurrection. He was not one of the apostles, but he was with the apostles already in the upper room at Pentecost (Acts 1:14). Jude showed his Jewish ethnicity when writing epistle by making frequent allusions to the Old Testament, showing a familiarity with non-canonical Jewish traditions, and showing a strong ethical concern.

Audiences and Occasions

Many of the General Epistles were written to more universal audiences than Paul’s epistles. While the issues Paul dealt with were often specific to his audiences, the General Epistles dealt with issues that are universally faced by Christians. This is the reason why they are called the General Epistles.

Hebrews

Hebrews was written before the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70. The recipients understood Judaism but spoke Greek, so they were likely Jewish Christians who lived outside of Palestine. It was almost certainly written to a specific community of believers (Guthrie, Introduction 699). These believers had suffered the plundering of their property (Heb. 10:34). The writer also identified some community-specific problems with the readers, such as their attitude toward marriage (13:4), finances (13:5), and their leaders (13:17). They were relatively immature in their faith (5:12), some even disregarding the need to meet together (10:25).

It is possible that the community in question was a community of ethnically Jewish Christians in Rome. Some of them may have even been present to hear Peter’s sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:10). We know that the epistle was read in Rome soon after it was written since it was quoted in Rome during the last decade of the first century (Guthrie, Hebrews 29). The author also made a reference in 13:24, which said, “Those who come from Italy send you greetings.” This would be most naturally understood as people originally from Italy sending greetings back home through the letter to the Hebrews.

James

James wrote this letter to “the twelve tribes in the Dispersion” (1:1). This was likely referring to Christians with a Jewish background. These Christians had been dispersed throughout the known world when Jews who had converted to Christianity suffered intense persecution in Jerusalem. This persecution began around A.D. 44 and continued through A.D. 62, the year of James’ death.

Although the recipients of James’ letter were dispersed throughout the nations, they still held their Jewish heritage in high regard. James’ letter acknowledged this. The letter contains frequent references to the Old Testament, specifically mentioning the Law in 1:25 and 2:8-13. James also referred to their meeting place as a synagogue in 2:2. The writing itself has a distinctively Jewish tone, using Hebrew literary devices like parallelism, aphorisms, images drawn from nature, and the way that similar sayings are grouped together (Sproul 1800).

This community struggled with how to put their faith into practice. They had to learn how to deal with their afflictions from the perspective of faith. They had to learn how to treat each other with the same kind of grace and mercy that they received from Jesus Christ.

1 Peter

In 1 Peter 5:3, Peter wrote that he was in “Babylon” when he wrote this epistle. It is commonly assumed that he was referring to Rome, where we know Peter lived at the end of his life. Like James, Peter wrote to people whom he considered to be “exiles in the dispersion” (1:1); however, Peter’s audience was probably focused more on the Gentiles of the dispersion, although Jewish Christians were also likely part of the communities to whom he wrote. Peter listed Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia as the areas where his audience was dispersed. These areas were relatively prosperous economically, but there was a wide disparity between those who had material resources and those who did not. Most likely, the churches Peter addressed contained a mixture of both rich and poor.

Numerous references in the text of 1 Peter show that the readers were suffering persecution for their faith. Types of suffering included insults, slanderous accusations of wrongdoing, beatings, social ostracism, sporadic mob violence, and local police action (Pratt 2015). Peter wrote to encourage these believers to remain steadfast in their faith, with the glories of their eternal inheritance always in sight, and to live upright, Christian lives even in the face of suffering.

2 Peter

Peter wrote his second epistle to “those who have obtained a faith of equal standing with ours by the righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ” (1:1). This is different from the specific destinations he listed in his first letter. However, it was probably written to the same group of the dispersion. In 3:1, Peter indicated that this was his second letter to them. If the first letter was 1 Peter, then the audience for 2 Peter was the same. These Christians were being threatened with false teaching, and Peter wanted to make sure that they stood fast in the truth. Given some of the ethical injunctions in 2 Peter, the false teaching was probably an early form of Gnosticism, which stressed attaining the correct “knowledge” (gnosis), rather than being saved through faith in Jesus Christ.

Peter composed this letter when his death was imminent (1:14). Since Peter died in A.D. 67-68, this epistle was probably composed around A.D. 65-67. It is widely believed that Peter died in Rome under Nero's reign. If that is correct, then Peter likely wrote this epistle from Rom as a final address to believers that he knew he would soon be leaving behind.

1 John

The Greek in the Johannine epistles is so similar to the Gospel of John that they are generally acknowledged to be written by the same person. We do not know the precise identity of the Christians John wrote to, but it was probably a specific group of Christians with whom John had a close relationship.

John wrote this letter to warn his readers about a false teaching that denied Jesus had come in the flesh. His opening statement about “that which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked at and our hands of touched…” makes very clear where John stood on that issue. This type of teaching, called Docetism, plagued the early church until it was finally proclaimed a heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.

2 John

John addressed the letter to “the elect lady and her children” (v. 1). This could have been addressed to a Christian woman and her natural family, or it could be speaking figuratively of a church and its members. John’s concerns in this letter were the same as in his first letter. He warned against Docetism. He repeated some themes from 1 John, but he was probably writing to a different person or group than the audience of 1 John.

3 John

John wrote to his friend Gaius. Although the name Gaius is mentioned elsewhere in Scripture, it was a common name, so it is not possible to definitively link this Gaius with any of the others mentioned in Scripture. John knew Gaius well, and he commended him for his consistent Christian life (v. 3) and his warm hospitality (v. 6). John warned Gaius about Diotrephes, who did not acknowledge John’s authority. Since John’s other epistles were probably written for Asian destinations, it is probable that this letter also was written for the circuit of Asiatic churches under John’s supervision (Guthrie, Introduction 896).

Jude

Jude did not identify his audience other than to say that they have been called and loved by God the Father and kept by Jesus Christ. He may have written it to a Jewish-Christian audience, or he may have intended it as a circular letter for several churches, but it is impossible to specify his audience with any certainty.

Whomever Jude’s original audience was, it is clear that they were being troubled by false teachers. These teachers crept into the church without raising any alarms, but they promoted a sensual lifestyle and, in fact, denied Jesus Christ. They assumed God’s grace gave them license to engage in immoral practices. Jude wrote his letter to warn the church about such false teachers and to call the faithful to persevere in their faithfulness, relying on the power of the Lord to keep them from stumbling.

Content

Having examined some of the background to the General Epistles, we can now look at the content of these letters and then make some general comments regarding how to apply these letters to our lives.

Hebrews

Hebrews was written to show the superiority of Jesus Christ over Old Testament forms and types of Christ. The author exhorted and encouraged believers to persevere in the faith of the new covenant. He explained in detail how Jesus fulfilled the temple sacrifices and the priesthood established in the Law of Moses. He showed how Jesus Christ is superior to all the Old Testament types and shadows.

One thing that stands out in the letter is the beginning. Rather than starting with a traditional greeting, the author of Hebrews moved directly into a series of claims regarding the superiority of Jesus Christ. This, along with the many exhortations sprinkled throughout the letter, has led some people to claim that it was first delivered as a sermon rather than a letter (Sproul 1776). This certainly is possible, but it remains a conjecture. What we can do is trace the organization of the book by looking at the author’s claims regarding Christ’s superiority to other groups and individuals.

Christ is Superior to Prophets and Angels (1:1–2:18)

In the past, God spoke through prophets and angels, who were messengers of God, but now in these last days, Christ has come, who far surpasses them. Jesus Christ is the final and greatest revelation of God (1:4). Christ’s superiority over previous revelation was anticipated in the Old Testament, particularly in passages that show how the Son of David would be exalted above all others. Because Christ is superior, we owe our allegiance only to Christ and cling to him for our salvation. It was this Christ who made himself like us to bring those who believe in him to glory.

Christ is Superior to Moses and Joshua (3:1–4:13)

Jesus, Moses, and Joshua were faithful to God the Father, and they faithfully fulfilled their callings. But Christ still deserves greater honor since he was faithful over God’s house as a son (3:6). Moses was simply a servant of God. As great as Moses was, he could not prevent the people he led from losing their promised rest. Likewise, Joshua led people into the Promised Land, but the ultimate rest that God gives remained unfulfilled even after Joshua’s accomplishments. The author of Hebrews called his readers to hold fast to the truth that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and to reject disbelief.

Christ Is Superior to Aaron and the Priesthood (4:14–7:28)

Jesus Christ is superior to Aaron because Christ’s priesthood is eternal, but Aaron’s priesthood was not. Aaron was subject to weakness and had to offer sacrifices for his own sins, as well as for the sins of the people (5:3). The writer to the Hebrews explained how Jesus was a high priest after the order of Melchizedek, but admitted that this concept was hard to explain because the Hebrews were slow to learn. In that light, he exhorted his readers to “go on to maturity” (6:1).

The writer also explained that Jesus’ priesthood was established forever by divine oath. God secured it in the same way he secured his promises to Abraham. The wonderful promise in Psalm 110:4 of a royal priest being established forever after the order of Melchizedek was fulfilled in Jesus Christ. It could not be established in the Levitical priesthood since all the sons of Aaron were weak and limited. But Jesus “has become the guarantee of a better covenant” (7:22). The writer to the Hebrews made the contrast very clear:

“For it was indeed fitting that we should have such a high priest, holy, innocent, unstained, separated from sinners, and exalted above the heavens. He has no need, like those high priests, to offer sacrifices daily, first for his own sins and then for those of the people, since he did this once for all when he offered up himself. For the law appoints men in their weakness as high priests, but the word of the oath, which came later than the law, appoints a Son who has been made perfect forever” (7:26-28).

Christ’s Ministry is Superior to the Ministry of the Priests (8:1–10:18)

Just as Christ was superior to the Aaron and the priests, so too, the work he accomplished in atoning for our sins, was far superior to the work of the priests. The priesthood of Jesus Christ comes in the context of the new covenant, which makes the old covenant under the Aaronic priesthood obsolete (Guthrie, Introduction 731). Jesus’ work in the new covenant brought a superior focus of worship and sacrifice. The sacrifice of Jesus’ own blood was far superior to the animal sacrifices in the old covenant. Those sacrifices had to be repeated year after year, but Christ’s sacrifice was final.

Call to Persevere in Faith (10:19–13:25)

The writer to the Hebrews concluded his exhortations by calling for faithfulness to the end. He gave the following reasons for faithfulness and examples of faithfulness: The new covenant reveals more divine grace, but along with that grace comes increased responsibility. The writer to the Hebrews encouraged Christians to hold unswervingly to the hope we profess (10:23) and to spur one another on toward love and good deeds (10:24). In chapter 11, he gave examples of men and women of faith from the Old Testament. The faith of these men and women demonstrated their certainty that they would receive what God had promised but had not yet provided. He explained that God often encourages faithfulness and perseverance by bringing hardship in a believer’s life. It is a kind of discipline that God brings to test his true children and bring them to maturity.

The writer also compared the old covenant, associated with the earthly Mount Sinai, and the new covenant, associated with the heavenly and eternal Mount Zion. At Mount Sinai, where the law was given, the Israelites were overwhelmed by fear. But joy and confidence characterize Mount Zion because the Savior is there with the blood of forgiveness. The writer closed his letter with final exhortations, a benediction, and greetings.

James

James wrote to encourage Christians to gain wisdom, strengthen their faith, and display their faith through obedience to God, especially in their treatment of other people. It has a decidedly Jewish flavor. It focuses on the need for wisdom from God.

Perseverance (1:1-12)

James began his letter with a traditional salutation, where he identified himself as a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ. He identified his intended audience as the twelve tribes scattered among the nations. He then exhorted his readers to persevere through various trials. James encouraged his readers to ask God for wisdom as they faced various trials. The trials they faced would help them mature and gain wisdom. But James also warned his readers not to presume that God was responsible for their trials and temptations to sin. He warned them that expressing their anger would not produce the wisdom they desired. Rather, they should hear and obey the Word of God.

Works of Faith (2:1-26)

James exhorted his readers to live out their faith. One way to do this was to treat everyone equally. We are all equal partakers of God’s grace, so partiality is not appropriate in the kingdom of Jesus Christ. James stressed that one’s faith had to be proven by the deeds that he did. Faith without works is a false faith, and as such, it is dead. True faith shows itself by what it does.

Wisdom (3:1-18)

James stressed the importance of showing wisdom by restraining the tongue. A truly wise person will control his speech. Uncontrolled speech only causes damage within the Christian community. James also compared two kinds of wisdom: Wisdom from the world is characterized by envy and selfish ambition. But wisdom from God is marked by humility and peace.

Foolish Passions (4:1-17)

In contrast to wisdom, foolishness shows itself through being pulled along by foolish passions. It is our worldly passions, said James, that causes quarrels among us. Friendship with the world is enmity with God (4:4). James warned against tearing others down. He also warned against thinking too highly of oneself. Rather, one should seek wisdom from God, which wipes away presumption and slander.

Patient Dependence on God (5:1-20)

James warned the rich to avoid presumption. While wealth itself is not evil, it does present temptations to exploit the poor or ignore their legitimate needs. Rich people who yield to this temptation and oppress the poor will receive God’s severe judgment. James also pointed to patience in suffering as a demonstration of godly wisdom. Those who persevere can be considered blessed. James exhorted those who were suffering to bring their needs to God in prayer, for God certainly hears the prayers of his people.

1 Peter

Peter wrote to encourage confused and suffering Christians to stand firm in their faith. He is often called the apostle of hope. He exhorted Christians to look forward with joy to their eternal inheritance, and he instructed them about proper behavior during suffering. For Peter, Christian living can be summarized in the words trust and obey.

The Blessings of Salvation (1:1-12)

Peter began his epistle with an opening salutation. He identified himself as an apostle of Jesus Christ, and he identified his readers as strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. Like other apostles, Peter also greeted his readers with a blessing: “May grace and peace be multiplied to you” (1:2). This blessing would have been especially appropriate for the ones to whom Peter was writing. They were being persecuted for their faith. The only comfort Christians have in the face of persecution is the grace and peace of our Lord.

After the salutation, Peter continued to expound the blessings Christian have in Christ. He described their sure and glorious salvation in Christ, who has given them a living hope through his resurrection from the dead. Peter called it “an inheritance that is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading” (1:4) that is kept in heaven for us. This allows Christians to continue rejoicing even in the midst of suffering.

The Implications of Salvation (1:13–3:12)

This inheritance that we have been promised is a precious gift that has implications for how we live. Peter called his readers to set themselves apart from sin. They should be holy, imitating their holy God. They should show a reverent fear of God, who judges everyone’s work impartially. They should also show their love for each other. Peter called his readers to get rid of sins that tear down fellow Christians, such as “malice and all deceit and hypocrisy and envy and all slander” (2:1). He called them to exercise Christian maturity, proclaiming, “...grow up into salvation—if indeed you have tasted that the Lord is good” (2:2).

Peter gave two examples of what mature Christian lives should look like. He compared Christians to the temple. As living stones, they are built up into a spiritual house for the praise of God. Peter also compared them to the priesthood. In Peter’s words, they are “a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession…. (2:9).

Peter further applied his message of salvation and hope to his readers’ behavior and attitudes in a variety of social relationships, even outside the church. He exhorted his readers to live such good lives among the pagans that they cannot help but glorify God. He also encouraged his readers to respect authority, whether it be in civil governments or in household relations. In all things, he encouraged his readers to live in harmony with each other, not repaying even with evil.

Christian Suffering and Service (3:13–5:11)

Peter did not downplay the suffering that his readers experienced. He acknowledged that Christians suffer, but he encouraged them not to make sin the cause of their suffering. He said that Christians should be eager to do what is good. In that way, our suffering can bring shame to our tormentors and glory to God. God is glorified in our suffering because, in doing so, we take on the same attitude as Jesus Christ in his suffering. Just as Jesus did not live his earthly life for his own desires, but rather for the will of God, so we can live our lives turned away from doing what the pagans do and, instead, serving God with the strength he provides. Peter stated that not only do we imitate Christ’s suffering, but we also participate in his sufferings when we suffer ourselves. We should not be ashamed of that kind of suffering, but rather we should praise God.

Peter ended his epistle by dealing with conflicts that arose among his readers because of suffering. Specifically, he encouraged the elders to be faithful shepherds of God’s flock, and he encouraged the younger men to be submissive to those who are older. He closed his epistle in the normal way by sending greetings to several friends and blessing his readers.

2 Peter

Peter wrote his second epistle to counteract false teaching in the church. Particularly, he wrote it to counteract an early version of Gnosticism, which taught that salvation came through knowledge rather than through faith in Jesus Christ. However, in contrast to other epistles, Peter introduced the subject of false teachers gradually (see Guthrie, Introduction 853). Peter also used this epistle to counteract some of the ethical implications of Gnosticism. He spoke against using Christian liberty as an excuse to sin. He also spoke against denying the Lord, despising authority and celestial beings, and scoffing at the second coming of Christ.

True Knowledge and Spiritual Growth (1:1-11)

Peter began this epistle with a salutation, in which he identified himself as a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ. He also identified his audience as fellow Christians and pronounced a blessing on them. It is interesting how he identified his readers. They were “those who have obtained a faith of equal standing with ours by the righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ” (1:1). Peter claimed that faith does not come by obtaining some sort of special knowledge, but rather it comes by the righteousness of Jesus Christ. This directly contradicted the Gnostic idea of knowledge.

Peter encouraged his readers’ spiritual growth by focusing on the privileges, blessings, and responsibilities of being a Christian. He said that Christians have everything we need for life and godliness because we know Jesus Christ, who called us into his own glory and excellence (1:3). By participating in his nature, we can escape the corruption of the world. We can show our gratitude for all that Christ has done for us by making our calling and election sure. Peter said in 1:5-7,

“For this very reason, make every effort to supplement your faith with virtue, and virtue with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with steadfastness, and steadfastness with godliness, and godliness with brotherly affection, and brotherly affection with love.”

In contrast to the Gnostic idea of increasing spiritual, other-worldly knowledge, Peter advocated supplementing our faith with increasing virtue.

True Teaching (1:12-21)

Peter went on to claim that this idea of spiritual growth came from true apostolic teaching. He made a forceful case for the truth of his testimony as opposed to the testimony of the false teachers. Peter told his readers that he was going to remind them of things they already knew, particularly regarding Christ’s return. Peter was not giving them “new knowledge” like the Gnostic false teachers tried to do. Peter reminded his readers of his apostolic credentials as an eyewitness to Jesus Christ. Peter saw Jesus’ majesty when he witnessed the transfiguration, and the transfiguration foreshadowed Christ’s return in glory. Peter also reminded his readers of the prophetic testimony that supported his teaching regarding Jesus Christ’s return. The prophets “spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (1:21) and so they cannot be discounted. Likewise, Peter, who taught the same message about Christ's return as the prophets, cannot be discounted either.

False Teaching (2:1-22)

Rather, said Peter, the church needs to distinguish between true and false teachers. False teachers bring destruction on themselves and lead others in the church into similar destruction. False teachers were present when the Old Testament prophets were prophesying, and Peter warned that false teachers were also present among his readers. These teachers were destroying themselves and exploiting Peter’s readers by making up lies. He warned his readers that God would not spare false teachers from the destruction planned for them. Peter gave them examples of fallen angels who were condemned, and Sodom and Gomorrah, who did not escape judgment.

Peter described the false teachers as bold and arrogant blasphemers. He compared them to brute beasts, creatures of instinct, born only to be caught and destroyed. He also described these false teachers as springs without water and mists driven by a storm. Their words are empty and boastful. They promise freedom but are slaves to depravity. They are like dogs that return to their vomit or like pigs that are washed and go back to wallowing in the mud (2:22).

Truth About Christ’s Return (3:1-18)

Peter reminded his readers that despite scoffers who denied Christ’s return, Jesus will certainly come again. He has only delayed his coming because he was patient, not wanting anyone to perish. Peter also warned his readers that when Jesus does come, it will be like a thief in the night. They should always be ready and continue to grow in the grace and knowledge of Jesus Christ, so that they are found spotless, blameless, and at peace with him when he returns.

1 John

By the time John wrote his first epistle, he had spent a lifetime working out the truths of the faith. He wrote his first epistle to communicate these truths to the next generation. In this epistle, John warned believers about Docetism, a false teaching that denied that Jesus had come in the flesh. 1 John lacks the traditional elements of an epistle such as a salutation, an introductory greeting, and final greetings. However, it does contain elements of a testament, which would include a review of the testator’s life, ethical exhortations, and predictions and warnings about the future. The ending of John’s epistle also contains elements that would normally be found in a testament.

Walking in the Light (1:1–2:27)

John wrote about his personal connection to Jesus Christ. John was one of the witnesses who physically saw, heard, and touched Jesus. John bore witness to this Son of God, who existed from the beginning. John proclaimed it in his epistle so that his readers could also have fellowship in Jesus Christ and so that their joy would be complete. He described God’s holiness by saying that he is light and that there is no darkness in him at all. To have fellowship with him, Christians must walk in the light, confess our sins, and rely on God who “is faithful and just to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness” (1:9). He can do this because of Jesus Christ, who is the atoning sacrifice for our sins. We know that we are walking in the light if we obey the Lord’s commands, especially the commandment to love God and fellows Christians, rejecting love for the world and anything in it. John warned his readers to reject the teachings of anyone who denies that Jesus is the Christ. Some teachers among the Christians to whom John was writing, tried to lead John’s readers astray. But they did not really belong to the church and were rightly labeled antichrists.

Living as Children of God (2:28–5:5)

Just as John warned his readers to reject the antichrists, he exhorted them to continue living as children of God. Believers should strive for purity and righteousness, just as God the Father and God the Son are pure and righteous. They should also love one another, just as Jesus Christ loved us enough to lay down his life for us. John told his readers to test the spirits with the understanding that every spirit that acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, and every spirit that does not is not from God. Love for one another also comes from God because God is love. God displayed his love by sending “his only Son into the world so that we might live through him” (4:9). Belief in Jesus Christ shows that a person is born of God. A believer’s rebirth shows itself in love for God the Father, God the Son, and God’s children, and love for God expresses itself in obedience to his commands.

The Three Witnesses (5:6-21)

Just as the beginning of 1 John showed similarities to a testament, so too the ending exhibits those qualities. Following an Old Testament requirement, a testament needed to be ratified by two or three witnesses. At the end of this epistle, John brought forward three witnesses—the water, the blood, and the Spirit—to testify to the full humanity of Jesus. This would be in direct opposition to the heresy of Docetism. John showed how the water and blood that flowed from Jesus’ side at the cross testified to his humanity. He also showed how the work of the Spirit in the ministry of the apostles confirmed their message that Jesus had come in the flesh.

John concluded by saying that if we believe in the name of the Son of God, we can be assured of eternal life. We can pray with confidence for others who stray from the faith. And we can be assured of victory over the evil one.

2 John

John wrote his second epistle to warn against Docetism, the same false teaching that he opposed in his first letter. Unlike 1 John, 2 John does have the typical characteristics of an epistle: a salutation, introductory greeting, and final greeting. It is written to give encouragement and warning to a specific fellowship of Christians that John felt responsible for. John identified himself as the elder and identified his readers as the chosen lady and her children, which could be a woman and her children that John knew, or it could be a figurative term referring to a local church.

John commended the chosen lady and her children for their faithfulness. He exhorted his readers to walk in love and in obedience to the Lord’s commands. He used strong words to warn against false teachers who denied that Jesus came in the flesh. They were deceivers and antichrists. Anyone who welcomed them shared in their wickedness. John concluded his epistle by sharing his hope to visit his readers in person and sending greetings from “your elect sister” (v. 13).

3 John

John wrote to encourage Gaius to show hospitality toward others and especially to those who minister the gospel. The focus of 3 John is a sharp conflict between members of a congregation regarding support shown to traveling missionaries. This epistle also has the distinctive elements of an epistle: the salutation, introductory greeting, and final greeting. John began the epistle by introducing himself as the elder and greeting Gaius, the recipient of the letter. John commended Gaius for the hospitality he had shown in the past and condemned Demetrius for treating his fellow Christians poorly. He also exhorted Gaius to continue imitating what is good. John shared his hope to see Gaius face to face and offered greetings from those who were with him.

Jude

Jude wrote his epistle to denounce false teachers who used Christian liberty and the free grace of God as a license for immorality. Jude is filled with stern warnings against the false teachers as well as positive exhortations to believers. Jude is known for its use of numerous non-canonical sources.

Denunciation of False Teachers (1-19)

Jude identified himself as a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James. He also greeted his readers and blessed them, which was a standard way of beginning an epistle. Jude explained that his purpose for writing was to refute the false teaching that turned God’s grace into a license for immorality. He reminded his readers that false teachers will be judged by God. He gave examples of the ungodly being judged by God, and he described the judgment waiting for those who lead others into sin. He also showed how past prophecy indicated even more severe judgment to come for the ungodly. He described how the apostles had predicted that some would reject their teaching, showing that they follow “ungodly passions” (v. 18) and are “worldly people, devoid of the Spirit” (v. 19).

Exhortations to Believers (20-25)

Jude also gave positive encouragement to his readers. He exhorted them to build themselves up in the faith, to pray in the Holy Spirit, to keep themselves in God’s love as they wait for the mercy of the Lord Jesus. He also encouraged them to show grace and mercy to others who may be struggling in their Christian walk. Jude concluded by praising God for his power in preserving a people for himself and acknowledged God’s eternal glory, majesty, power, and authority.

Application

It is not possible to list all the ways we can apply the General Epistles to our lives. However, we can make a few general comments that will help us in making more specific applications.

The superiority of Jesus Christ

Christian living demands a focus on Jesus Christ, who is superior to everything else. Jesus Christ is superior to spiritual beings like the angels (see Hebrews 1:1-2:18). Jesus Christ is superior to Moses and Aaron (see Hebrews 3:1-7:28). Jesus Christ is superior to all the forms and shadows that pointed to him in the Old Testament (see Hebrews 8:1-10:18). Therefore, we should look to Jesus, the founder and perfecter of our faith (Hebrews 12:2).

Love

Love unites us to God and to one another. It should be expressed not only in words but in actions and in truth (see 1 John 3:18). John said, “By this we know love, that he laid down his life for us, and we ought to lay down our lives for the brothers (1 John 3:16). Christ’s love for us shows us how we should love one another. As D.A. Carson put it,

“The perfection of love of the Father for the Son is to be mirrored in the perfection of love of Christian for Christian...’ that the world may know you have sent me,'’ Jesus says” (Carson, Supremacy 1:16:06).

Or as Clement of Rome put it,

“Who can describe the [blessed] bond of the love of God? What man is able to tell the excellence of its beauty, as it ought to be told? The height to which love exalts is unspeakable. Love unites us to God. Love covers a multitude of sin” (I Clement 49:2-5a)

Faith and Works

Christian living demands faith and works. Faith does not preclude works, but rather is the foundation for them. Works that are not founded on faith are dead. But likewise, faith without works is dead (James 2:26). James put it this way:

“If a brother or sister is poorly clothed and lacking in daily food, and one of you says to them, ‘Go in peace, be warmed and filled,’ without giving them the things needed for the body, what good is that? so also faith by itself, if it does not have works, is dead.” (James 2:15-17).

The writer to the Hebrews also encouraged works arising from faith, He said,

“Let us hold fast the confession of our hope without wavering, for he who promised is faithful. And let us consider how to stir up one another to love and good works (Heb. 10:23-24).

Similarly, John commended Gaius for the hospitality he showed to traveling Christian teachers, saying that Gaius acted “in a manner worthy of God” (3 John 6).

Perseverance in Persecution

God often brings hardship to a believer’s life to encourage faithfulness and perseverance. Christians who bear their hardships faithfully reflect Jesus Christ, who faithfully bore his cross, not in defeat but to attain victory over sin and death. The persecution we experience in our union with Christ is nothing compared to the victory we also experience as believers united to Christ.

Peter put it this way: “Since therefore Christ suffered in the flesh, arm yourselves with the same way of thinking, for whoever has suffered in the flesh has ceased from sin (1 Pet. 4:1). And later Peter said,

“Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery trial when it comes upon you to test you, as though something strange were happening to you. But rejoice insofar as you share Christ’s sufferings, that you may also rejoice and be glad when his glory is revealed” (1 Pet. 4:12-13).

Persecution can have positive outcomes for the believer. As Peter also said,

“In this you rejoice, though now for a little while if necessary, you have been grieved by various trials, so that the tested genuineness of your faith —more precious than gold that perishes though it is tested by fire—may be found to result in praise and glory and honor at the revelation of Jesus Christ” (1 Pet. 1:6-7).

5

Revelation

John’s Apocalypse is unique among the books of the New Testament. It contains strange visions that some people struggle to understand. But like all the other books of the Bible, Revelation was given for our edification. It is worth our time to seek to understand it.

Background

We are already familiar with some parts of Revelation’s background. We have studied the author and even some of the literary forms used in writing the book. However, other aspects of Revelation’s background are unique to this book.

Genre

Revelation begins as an epistle, but we soon discover that it is quite different from any other epistle we encounter. That is because it is not just an epistle. It is also a form of apocalyptic literature. Let’s discuss both of those genres and see how John developed them in the book of Revelation.

Epistle

As an epistle, Revelation follows the familiar epistolary format. It begins with a salutation listing the author and the intended audience. The body of the letter follows and then concludes with final exhortations, greetings, and a benediction. We also see evidence of the epistolary genre in chapters 2-3, which constitute Christ’s letters to the seven churches. However, John follows the epistolary format only loosely in Revelation. The primary genre he uses us apocalyptic literature, which overshadows any other genres.

Apocalyptic Literature

Revelation has much in common with other apocalyptic literature of John’s day. However, it also has some important differences. Let’s look first at the differences. Much of apocalyptic literature can be characterized by the author’s use of a pseudonym. In other words, the author claimed to be someone else. Often, the author was not well-known but wanted to give his writing more prestige, so he claimed that it was written by someone more famous or more respected in some way. Revelation does not share this characteristic. It claims to be written by John, and in fact, it was written by John.

Similarly, sometimes authors who wanted to give their books more prestige would write about past events but pretend that their writing was even older than the event. This would make it seem that their writing was an accurate prophecy of the future. For example, First Enoch was written during the intertestamental period, but it purports to be a prophecy written from the mouth of Enoch concerning the entire history of Israel. Revelation does not share this characteristic. Revelation is forward looking. It does not pretend to come from the past.

Also, apocalyptic literature would sometimes be quite pessimistic about God’s sovereign rule in the present. Many apocalyptic works were written to groups that were culturally out of favor. The Qumran community is one example. These groups had lost cultural power, and some of the apocalyptic works they produced essentially made the point that while God was not very active in the present, his salvation would come in the future. But that is not how Revelation works. Although the conflict depicted in Revelation is fierce, victory belongs not only to the future but even to the present, because the Lamb has already conquered. John gave his readers hope in the midst of suffering by making clear that Jesus Christ already rules and that his victory is a present reality.

Revelation also has many similarities to apocalyptic literature. One characteristic of apocalyptic literature is that it attempted to reveal some of the secret things of God. The book of Revelation does just that. Through visions, John was given a glimpse into the throne room of God, where he saw some of the inner workings of heaven. He revealed these inner workings in his book.

Another characteristic shared by Revelation and other apocalyptic literature is historical determinism. Much apocalyptic literature focuses on the fact that the future has already been determined by God. John also recognized that all things come under God’s rule and direction. However, unlike some apocalyptic literature, John did not fall into the trap of Christian fatalism.

A frequent theme of apocalyptic literature was a battle between the forces of good and the forces of evil, which we would call ethical dualism. John’s revelation also records the epic battle between God and Satan. However, even here, there is a difference. Much apocalyptic literature characterized the forces of good and the forces of evil as equal but opposite forces. The struggle between good and evil in Revelation is much different. Revelation shows us the kingdom of Jesus Christ claiming victory over Satan’s attempt to set up a false kingdom. The outcome was never in doubt because Satan’s usurping kingdom cannot be compared equally to the kingdom of Jesus Christ. Satan is not God. Jesus Christ is.

Another characteristic of apocalyptic literature is that it is filled with bizarre images and symbols. Revelation shares this characteristic. In many ways, this is what makes people think they will not be able to understand the book. However, these images would have been readily understood by the people of John’s day who were attuned to the images of apocalyptic literature. These images can also be easily understood by us if we take the time to understand this unique and challenging genre.

Author

The author of Revelation is John, the same person who wrote the Gospel of John and the three epistles of John. The style of Revelation is different from the other works by John, which has caused some scholars to doubt the Johannine authorship of Revelation. However, we can easily explain the differences in style if we account for the fact that John used a different genre to describe his visions.

Besides that, we have clear testimony from the book itself that John wrote the book. In Revelation 1:4, the author identified himself as John. The early church further identified him as the apostle John. There are no insurmountable reasons to reject the judgment of these early church fathers.

Audiences and Occasion

G. B. Caird described Revelation this way:

“The Book of Revelation is not a handbook of systematic theology. John wrote as a pastor, to give courage and hope to men facing imminent persecution, and he wrote as an artist, giving to ancient images new life and meaning by combining them in the unity of a great work of art” (289).

John addressed this book to churches in seven cities in Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Some of these churches were experiencing persecution, and more was coming. They faced pressure from Roman officials to worship the emperor. They also faced challenges from false teachers within the church. And they faced pressures to compromise with the society around them. Revelation was written to give them hope and encouragement with the knowledge that God rules history and will bring it to its consummation in Christ.

Content

Revelation communicates much of its message through symbolic elements and visual imagery of apocalyptic literature. It is a picture book, a dramatic presentation that shows the reader a God-centered view of history. It shows the judgment Christ brings in the spiritual war against Satan and his followers and the consummation of Christ’s kingdom when he comes again. It describes this judgment in a series of seven cycles, each depicting the same spiritual war, but from a fresh vantage point. The cycles concentrate progressively on the most intense phases of conflict and on the second coming.

Introduction (1:1-8)

It is interesting that the book begins with the words “the revelation of Jesus Christ” (1:1). Some Christians may be turned off by a book with so many strange visions that seem to conceal whatever message John was trying to get across. But in fact, the purpose of Revelation is just the opposite. Jesus intends to reveal things to his church through this book. He did that by sending an angel to John, who bore witness to what he saw and heard.

The one who wrote these visions down identified himself simply as John (1:4). That is all the identification he needed. The seven churches to whom he wrote knew that this was the apostle John. He provided an opening blessing to these churches and then included a section of praise to God. The theme of praising and worshiping God will occur throughout the entire book, ending with the new heavens and the new earth where God’s praise will be unending.

The Vision of Christ (1:9-20)

After the introduction, the book takes us through a series of visions. In John’s first vision, he saw Jesus Christ as a king, priest, and prophet. John described Jesus Christ as he appeared to him as the king of the universe, coming in overwhelming glory. His power was so great that he held in his hand seven stars. But Christ also came as a priest, walking among his churches, symbolized by seven lampstands. And he came as a prophet, holding the keys of death and Hades (Phillips 64-5).

The Letters to the Seven Churches (2:1-3:22)

In chapter 1, Christ stood among seven lampstands, which represented seven churches. In chapters 2–3, Christ addressed these churches by way of letters. He addressed each church according to their needs, showing a detailed knowledge of their unique circumstances. He rebuked some. He commended others. He exhorted and encouraged. At the same time, each letter represents Christ’s universal call to his Church throughout the ages to remain faithful until he returns.

Each letter, with slight alterations, follows the same basic form that includes the following elements:

“1. command to write to an angel of a church,

2. Christ’s self-description derived from the description in chapter 1 and introduced by the formula “these things” (τάδε λέγει),

3. commendation of the church’s good works,

4. accusation because of some sin,

5. exhortation to repent with a warning of judgment or an encouragement,

6. exhortation to discern the truth of the preceding message (“he who has an ear …”), and

7. promise to the conquerors.” (Beale 225)

Some elements are missing in some of the letters. It can be instructive to examine which letters lack which elements and why. Let’s take a look at each letter in turn.

Christ praised the church in Ephesus because of its zeal for sound doctrine, but he also called the members of the church to repent because they had forsaken their first love. The church in Ephesus was originally planted by Paul (Acts 18:19-21). Even after Paul left, the Ephesian Christians diligently sought to remain faithful in doctrine and life. They tested those who claimed to be apostles and found them to be false. Even now, 40 years after Paul planted the church, they still hated the heresy of the Nicolaitans. But they seemed to be so focused on maintaining pure doctrine, that they forgot their calling to be strong witnesses to the secular culture of Ephesus. Ephesus was famous for its temple to Artemis, which was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world (Phillips 91). However, the temple was also associated with cult prostitution, which made Ephesus very tolerant of sexual immorality. The church should have been a shining light in a dark, sinful culture, but it lost its desire to be such a light. Christ warned the church to repent and do the works they did at first, or he would remove their lampstand from its place.

Christ encouraged the church in Smyrna because it faced serious, even deadly, persecution. The Jewish community in Smyrna strongly opposed the church. The city itself was a staunch ally of Rome, even building a temple for emperor worship. The citizens would not tolerate anyone who showed allegiance to something or someone other than Caesar. Christ’s description of himself as “the first and the last, who died and came to life” (2:8), was particularly appropriate for the Christians in Smyrna, who needed assurance that Christ is sovereign over all history and that even death would not be able to separate them from the one who conquered death. Later, Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, willingly met his death as a martyr for refusing to say, “Caesar is Lord.”

Christ encouraged the church in Pergamum because it had borne persecution well, but he also called it to repent for not rejecting false teachers that had arisen in the church. Christ described himself to the church in Pergamum as wielding a two-edged sword (2:12). The same description appears in 1:16. A two-edged sword brings judgment on the guilty and protects the righteous. Smyrna needed both. There were some who held firm in their faith, even in the face of intense persecution and martyrdom. But the church also allowed false teaching and compromise with the world to creep into the body of believers. Christ warned the church to repent but also encouraged the believers in Smyrna by promising future blessings for those who conquer (2:17).

The church in Thyatira was very loving, but it fell short when it came to doctrinal purity. As he did with the church in Smyrna, Jesus identified himself to the church in Thyatira by taking descriptions from chapter 1. His eyes were like flaming fire and his feet like burnished bronze (1:14-15; 2:18). Like the church in Pergamum, the church in Thyatira had done things that Jesus commended but had also allowed false teaching and compromise with the world to enter the church. The church in Thyatira needed to be reminded that Jesus searches the mind and heart. He knows those who are his, and he encouraged the faithful believers in Thyatira to hold fast to what they had until Christ comes.

The church in Sardis was spiritually dead and did not seem to be concerned about it. They had a reputation for being alive, but Jesus knew better. Members of this church went through all the motions, but inside they were spiritually dead. Christ warned them to wake from their lethargy. Yet even in this church, Jesus found faithful members, and he promised that their names would never be blotted out of the book of life.

Christ praised the church in Philadelphia because persecution left them with little strength. But they remained faithful and did not deny Jesus Christ. Christ promised that because of their patient endurance, he would keep them from “the hour of trial that is coming on the whole world, to try those who dwell on the earth” (3:10). Even though the church in Philadelphia had little strength of their own, they could rely on the power of Jesus Christ. It is that power that made is possible for the church to become his people and to maintain their status as his people. It is that power that will continue to protect them from the tribulation to come (Beale 289).

Christ rebuked the church in Laodicea. The church considered itself rich and self-reliant, but Christ told them they were “wretched, pitiable, poor, blind, and naked” (3:17). Christ told them to repent and to rely on him for their true riches. John R. Stott described the church in Laodicea well:

“The Laodicean church was a half-hearted church. [And] perhaps none of the seven letters is more appropriate to [our] 21st century than this. It describes vividly the respectable, sentimental, nominal, skin-deep religiosity which is so wide-spread among us today. Our Christianity is flabby and anemic. We appear to have taken a lukewarm bath of religion” (What Christ Thinks, 116).

After the letters to the seven churches, John described a series of heavenly visions in the form of seven cycles of judgment. It is tempting for churches who are facing persecution and various trials to think that Satan has overcome Christ’s church. But Jesus encourages the churches to overcome by showing them that even the fiercest spiritual battle that Satan can wage will end in Satan’s defeat and the glorious consummation of Christ’s eternal kingdom. The focus of these chapters is not to give us a timetable of end-times events, but rather to show us Christ’s redemptive purpose for the world accomplished through his death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven.

The First Judgment Cycle: Seven Seals (4:1-8:1)

If there were any doubt as to who rules heaven and earth, that doubt is put to rest with Revelation chapter 4, which gives us a picture of God in heaven ruling from his throne. He was seated in all his glory, and surrounding him were 24 elders also seated on thrones. Around the throne were four living creatures. Before them was a sea of glass as clear as crystal. In God’s right hand was a scroll, sealed with seven seals. Only Jesus Christ, the “Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David (5:5) and the Lamb that had been slain (5:6), was worthy to open the seals and reveal what was in the scroll.

When the Lamb opened the first seal, a white horse appeared representing conquest. When the Lamb opened the second seal, a red horse appeared representing slaughter. The Lamb then opened the third seal, and a black horse representing famine appeared. When the Lamb opened the fourth seal, a pale horse representing death appeared, and Hades followed him. All four of these seals are calamities, growing in intensity from the first to the fourth seal. They are calamities that the world must endure until Jesus Christ comes again, but they are not calamities outside of Christ’s control. In fact, it is just the opposite. The Lamb is in control of all of this.

When the Lamb opened the fifth seal, John, in his vision, saw martyrs under God’s throne crying out for justice. They were told that justice would come, but they needed to wait for more martyrs to be added. When Christians struggle through persecution, it may seem that God is not in control, but he remains in full control. Final justice may not come immediately, but it will come in God’s time.

The opening of the sixth seal revealed an earthquake, an eclipse of the sun, the reddening of the moon, and even stars falling from the sky. The opening of this seal showed the earth being shaken to its very foundations and the people of the world cowering in fear. When Christ comes again, he will appear as a judge, and those whose sins are not covered by Jesus’ blood have every reason to fear his coming. However, for those whose sins are covered by the blood of Jesus Christ, God will provide protection through all the calamities the world experiences. The saints in Christ may still have to endure physical harm from the world, but they will be spiritually protected. They have been sealed and made righteous by the blood of the Lamb (7:14).

When the Lamb finally opened the seventh seal, signifying his return and the full consummation of his kingdom, the response is surprising. There are no shouts of praise on the part of the saints. There are no cries of woe from those who stand before Christ, the judge. Rather, there is complete silence in heaven for about half an hour. The end of this world as we know it does not come with shouts and great commotion. Rather, it comes with total, dumbstruck, awe in the presence of a holy and sovereign Lord.

The Second Judgment Cycle: Seven Trumpets (8:2-11:19)

The second judgment cycle gives us another perspective of the judgment God brings. In this second cycle, judgments are announced with trumpets. We also get a more vivid description of the destruction the judgments bring. However, even here, the judgments are not as devastating as they could be. Note in this cycle how the judgments are limited in various ways. The trumpets were sounded by angels standing before God’s throne, which was described in Revelation 4. These judgments also came from the throne of God himself, the sovereign Lord over all creation.

The first four trumpets struck the four main parts of creation: the land, the sea, freshwater, and the sky. When the first angel sounded the trumpet, hail and fire mixed with blood were thrown to the earth (8:7). All the green grass was burned up, but only a third of the trees and a third of the earth. When the second angel blew his trumpet, a third of the sea became blood, a third of the creatures in the sea died, and a third of the ships on the sea were destroyed. The third trumpet signaled a great star falling from heaven into all freshwater resources. A third of the water was made bitter, and many people died from it. The fourth trumpet affected the sun, moon, and stars. A third of their light was taken away.

The sounding of the fifth trumpet set in motion a plague of locusts. The locusts were allowed to plague the earth for five months, which was much longer than a typical locust invasion. The locusts were only allowed to harm the people who did not have the seal of God on their forehead, and they were not allowed to kill. However, the torment from this invasion would be so bad that people would seek death but would be unable to find it. When the sixth angel blew his trumpet, a conquering army was released to kill a third of mankind. Judgment was limited to one third of humanity, but even here, the ones who survived did not repent of their sin or turn away from their idols.

As was the case with the first judgment cycle, there is an interlude between the sixth and seventh trumpets. Here the interlude concerns John as well as two witnesses, who serve as examples to God’s people to continue their faithful witness in the world, despite how distasteful the message might be or how negatively the world responds to it. John was given a little scroll to eat. It was sweet as honey in his mouth, but it was made bitter in his stomach. It is similar to Ezekiel’s commission to prophesy in Ezekiel 3. In Revelation, John was given a similar commission to speak what was on the little scroll, even though what he had to say contained descriptions of much suffering authorized by God himself. The two witnesses were also given a commission to stand as witnesses to God’s sovereign authority to judge the earth. They stood in stark contrast to the powers of this world. For a time, it looked like the people of the world won a victory over the two witnesses, rejoicing over their dead bodies. But the witnesses were vindicated when the breath of God entered them again.

The sounding of the seventh trumpet, like the opening of the seventh seal, signaled the second coming and the triumph of Christ’s kingdom. A reference to the 24 elders shows that we are still in the throne room (ch. 4). The elders fell down in worship, and the temple in heaven was opened, revealing the ark of his covenant for all to see. No longer was there a curtain of separation between God’s presence and his people. At Christ’s second coming, God will be fully revealed in all his glory.

The Third Judgment Cycle: Seven Histories (12:1-14:20)

The spiritual conflict that we saw increasing in the second judgment cycle is put into full view in this third judgment cycle, as we are shown the histories of those who oppose God. It starts with the scene of a woman and a dragon. The woman, representing God’s people in the Old Testament, was being chased by the dragon, identified as Satan (12:9). The dragon had extensive power and pursued the woman so that he could devour her child, Jesus Christ. However, the dragon failed and furiously went off to make war on the rest of the woman’s offspring, the church.

One of the ways that the dragon continued to make war on the woman’s offspring was by seeking to change their allegiance from the true Trinity to a counterfeit trinity. The next section of this judgment cycle shows how the dragon attempted to do that. A beast, representing a counterfeit Christ, rose out of the sea, to whom the dragon, representing a counterfeit God the Father, gave his “power and his throne and great authority” (13:2). Everyone whose name was not written in the book of life worshiped the beast. Another beast, the beast from the earth, representing a counterfeit Holy Spirit, performed miraculous signs and wonders to deceive those who dwell on earth into worshiping the first beast.

But true children of God cannot be deceived. The Lamb has marked them as his own. John called them the 144,000, but they represent all the people of God who have been saved by the blood of Jesus. The redeemed sang a new song before the throne, one which only they could sing. The picture of the saints in Jesus Christ is followed by three announcements from three angels. The first angel called everyone to repent. The second angel announced the fall of Babylon. The third angel described the fierce judgment that awaited the unrepentant. A brief interlude follows where the people of God are called to endure whatever the world or the devil might bring and to remain faithful to Jesus Christ.

Those who endure can look forward to the Son of Man appearing on the clouds, coming to harvest the earth. Those who were deceived by the dragon will be taken up and thrown into the “great winepress of the wrath of God” (14:19). When Christ returns, his judgment will be severe, and it will be complete.

The Fourth Judgment Cycle: Seven Bowls (15:1-16:21)

The fourth judgment cycle presents us with seven last plagues. After these, said John, “the wrath of God is finished” (15:1). However, before the bowls are given to the angels who will pour them out, we are again given a picture of heaven. John described the sea of glass in the throne room of heaven, but this time it is glass mingled with fire. Those who had conquered the beast sang praises to God, the “King of the nations” (15:3).

After John’s description, the temple of heaven was opened, and the angels were given seven bowls of the wrath of God. The temple can bring the comfort of the presence of God to his people, but it brings the terrifying reality of God’s wrath to those who have opposed him. Like the first four trumpets, the first four bowls poured out God’s wrath on the four major regions of creation. However, unlike the trumpets that brought judgment to a third of creation, the bowls brought total destruction. The first bowl poured out God’s wrath on earth, and painful sores came upon people who were in league with the beast. The second bowl poured out God’s wrath on the sea, making it like blood and killing all living things in it. The third bowl turned freshwater sources into blood. And with the fourth bowl, the sun became like a scorching fire.

The fifth angel turned his attention to the beast, pouring out his bowl on the throne of the beast and plunging his kingdom into darkness. The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the Euphrates river, drying it up and allowing the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet (the beast of the earth) to gather their forces for a final battle at Armageddon.

As the forces of the dragon gathered, John paused briefly to commend the saints saying, “Blessed is the one who stays awake, keeping his garments on, that he may not go about naked and be seen exposed.” Then the armies were assembled. With the pouring out of the seventh bowl, the great and final wrath of God was poured out, raining down plagues in the great and final battle on the Day of the Lord.

The Fifth Judgment Cycle: Babylon and the Church (17:1-19:10)

The fifth judgment cycle shows a contrast between Christ’s true church and Babylon, a counterfeit church. Just as Satan tried to set up a counterfeit trinity, so he tried to set up a counterfeit church, where the world, instead of God, would be worshiped. While the beast tried to destroy Christians through persecution and martyrdom, Babylon tried to seduce Christians to give Babylon their allegiance instead of giving it to God. For the seven churches of Revelation, Rome stood as the embodiment of Babylon in that day. Rome was characterized by idolatry and pagan celebrations. The citizens of Room pursued sensual pleasure and material prosperity.

In this judgment cycle, one of the angels who had the seven bowls showed John the judgment that was reserved for Babylon. Before the destruction came, the people of God were warned to separate themselves from Babylon to avoid their own destruction. When the destruction does come for Babylon, it will be complete and permanent. Babylon will be “thrown down with violence, and will be found no more” (18:21).

The final, complete destruction of Babylon is cause for rejoicing among the saints. Again, there is a reference to the 24 elders and the four living creatures (19:4) that were introduced in chapter 4. The saints rejoiced not only in the destruction of Babylon, the counterfeit church, but they also rejoiced in the establishment of righteousness and the salvation of the true church. They rejoiced when they were commanded from the throne of God to “Praise our God, all you his servants, you who fear him, small and great” (19:5).

The scene of rejoicing culminates in the marriage supper of the Lamb. The Lamb has come. The Bride, Christ’s church, has made herself ready, and “it was granted to her to clothe herself with fine linen, bright and pure” (19:8), which represents her putting on the righteousness of Christ. John was so overwhelmed with the vision that he started to worship the angel, who quickly stopped him, reminding him that they were fellow servants of Jesus Christ and that they should all worship God.

The Sixth Judgment Cycle: The Final Battle (19:11-21)

The sixth cycle focuses all its attention on the last battle. It begins with heaven being opened, a sign that God was being revealed to all of humanity before the final battle between Christ and the forces opposing Christ, led by the beast and the false prophet. In the vision, the rider on the white horse assured the ultimate outcome of this battle because he was Jesus Christ, the Faithful and True. His description in chapter 19 recalled his description in the first two chapters of Revelation. He was revealed as the “King of kings and Lord of lords” (19:16).

As the battle commenced, an angel called all the birds of the heavens to a horrific feast, one that was distinctly contrasted with the marriage supper of the lamb in 19:6-10. The beast and the false prophet were captured and thrown alive into the lake of fire that burns with sulfur, a terrifying description of hell. The battle was Christ’s and his alone. It was by the sword that came from his mouth that all those who opposed him were slain. Their deaths and subsequent punishment mirrored the death and punishment of the beast and the false prophet (see 19:20; 20:10, 15).

The Seventh Judgment Cycle: The Last Judgment (20:1-21:8)

The seventh cycle is the final judgment cycle in Revelation. As such, it runs parallel to the previous six cycles. Prominent in this cycle are the 1,000-year reign of Christ, the judgment before the throne of God, and the establishment of the new heaven and the new earth.

Christians have differed in their understanding of the 1,000-year reign. Premillennialists believe this reign will occur after Christ’s second coming. Postmillennialists believe that the beginning of the 1,000 years is unknown, but Christ’s second coming will signal its end. Amillennialists believe that the 1,000 years are figurative, referring to the time in between Christ’s first coming and his second coming. Given the nature of the seven cycles of judgment, the amillennial view seems to fit the text best. When Christ comes again at the end of the 1,000 years, there will be a final battle where the devil is defeated and thrown into the lake of fire and sulfur along with all those who followed him (20:7-10).

After the final battle, a final judgment occurs (20:11-15). This will be a time of vindication for all those who followed the Lamb. However, for those who opposed the Lamb, it will be a time of terror and ultimate punishment by being thrown into the lake of fire.

In 21:1-8, the reward of the righteous is described. They will not be thrown into the lake of fire but instead will enter the new heaven and the new earth. The first heaven and the first earth will have passed away. Central to this new heaven and new earth is the New Jerusalem, which will be further described in the next section. The most significant change in the new heaven and new earth is that God will be present with us, and there will be no more mourning, or crying, or pain. All things will be made new.

The New Jerusalem (21:9-22:5)

The New Jerusalem was touched on in the seventh judgment cycle. Now we learn about it in greater detail. The New Jerusalem is filled with the glory of God. It is the shape of a perfect cube, but it is absolutely huge, about 1,400 miles on each side. One other object in the Bible was a perfect cube: the Most Holy Place in the tabernacle. The Most Holy Place represented the most intimate presence of God among his people. But with the Most Holy Place, access was limited only to the high priest, and he could only enter it one time per year. Now, the entire city is filled with the intimate presence of God. No temple is needed because God is its temple (21:22). God’s presence also means that no external light is needed for the glory of the Lord gives it light (21:23). God also protects the city so that there is no need to shut the city gates. It will be devoid of anything detestable or false because only those whose names are written in the Lamb’s book of life will enter there (21:26).

Flowing from the city will be a river of life. The source of the river is the throne of God that sits in the middle of the city. The image of the river of life takes us all the way back to the Garden of Eden, except in this city, sin will never enter, and the servants of the Lamb will reign forever and ever (22:5). The blessings of Eden are multiplied many times over. This is the final hope of all those who identify as servants of the Lamb.

Closing Exhortation, Warning, and Blessing (22:6-21)

John ended the book of Revelation by reassuring Christians that Jesus Christ is coming soon. This gives us hope for the future, but it also changes how we live each day. We long for the day when we will see Jesus coming on the clouds, and we live with a sense of urgency to prepare for that day. John reminded us that we should not only take these words to heart, but we should be careful not to add to them or take away from them. The words that Jesus has given us through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit are special and should be treated with special care. It is also a warning to those who would try to add to what Jesus gave us by claiming special revelation today. Instead, we should take the words that Jesus gave us to rekindle our hope and stimulate our desire for Christ’s return, so that we can truly say with John, “Come Lord Jesus!” (22:20).

Application

Revelation was written to give hope to persecuted Christians who are living in the world but are distinguished from it. While specific application depends on the circumstances of individual Christians, we can at least make some general comments regarding how to apply the message of this book to our lives.

The Superior Kingdom of Jesus Christ

Revelation is a book about the kingdom of Jesus Christ. It is far superior to any kingdom the world or the devil can create. In fact, the kingdoms of this world are counterfeit kingdoms. The only true, sustainable kingdom is Christ’s. All other kingdoms will fall away. The point of Revelation is that in the end, Jesus wins. His kingdom and his alone will be established forever. Christians can rejoice even now because we know what is coming. This gives us hope despite whatever we might be going through in this life.

Perseverance in Persecution

As we learned in our study of previous epistles, God often brings hardship into a believer's life to encourage faithfulness and perseverance. A Christian who faithfully bears his cross reflects Jesus Christ, who faithfully bore his cross, not in defeat but in order to attain victory over sin and death. Jesus expects us to persevere in persecution. He told the church in Smyrna that he saw their tribulation and poverty, but amazingly he did not take it away. In fact, he exhorted them to be faithful unto death, and through that, they would receive the crown of life. Jesus will not necessarily make our lives easy. In fact, we should prepare for persecution and trouble. But we know that any persecution or trouble we experience will be temporary. In the end, Jesus Christ will give a crown of life to those who persevere. G. K. Beale put it best when he said,

“... the death and defeat of Christ are, in reality, his victory over Satan.... The Lamb’s followers are to recapitulate the model of his ironic victory in their own lives; by enduring through tribulation they reign in the invisible kingdom of the Messiah (171).

Do Not Be Tempted to Compromise with the World

The seven churches mentioned in chapter 2-3 were sorely tempted to compromise with the world. When false teachers came, some rejected their teaching, but others allowed it to linger within the church. But Jesus Christ will not give his glory to another, and compromise with the world inevitably takes glory from Christ. This is not a small offense in Christ’s eyes. He will remove churches that compromise with the world in this way.

Do Not Be Seduced by the Attractions of Sensuality and Materialism

Another temptation of church and individual Christians is to be seduced by the sensuality and materialism of this world. This is the great temptation that Jezebel and Babylon presented in the book of Revelation. Jezebel is only concerned with her own pleasures. Babylon is only concerned with enjoying greater and greater material prosperity. But in the end, the delicacies that Babylon desires will be lost to her (18:14), and the merchants that thrived on providing the many material pleasures of this world will one day cry out in mourning when Babylon is thrown down. Rather than being seduced by Jezebel or Babylon, we should focus on the tremendous hope we have of the New Jerusalem, where God himself dwells and where nothing unclean will ever enter.

Do Not Be Deceived, But Test the Spirits

Throughout Scripture, and particularly in the visions of Revelation, we see that many of Satan’s attempts to harm the church have come by way of deception. Satan attempted to set up a counterfeit Trinity. He even attempted to set up a counterfeit church. He knows that he has nothing better or different to offer, so he resorts to manufacturing lies that closely resemble the truth, but are, in fact, the opposite of the truth. Many traps that Christians fall into look relatively benign until the Christian falls into them. Many churches that fall prey to false teaching do not start out thinking that they will believe false teachers. But the teaching sounds good, and they are led astray a half step at a time. Jesus Christ warned some of the churches in Revelation 2–3 that their toleration of false teachers would lead to their downfall. We should guard very carefully that which has been handed down to us through faithful servants of Jesus Christ. We should be like the Bereans in Acts 17:10-15, who even tested what Paul said in the light of Scripture.

Works Consulted

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Brand, Chad, Charles Draper and Archie England. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Holman Bible Publishers, 2003.

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Notes

[←1]

See chapter three for maps of Paul’s missionary journeys.

[←2]

The periods in Paul’s life that follow are based on the timeline found in the Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible, pp. 1772-3 and the article entitled “Paul’s Life and Epistles” found in the same Bible on p. 1805.